Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T02:03:09.023Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Aging, fitness and muscular performance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 November 2008

Stephen Fowlie
Stephen Fowlie*
Affiliation:
The Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford, UK
*
Dr Stephen Fowlie, Department of Clinical Geratology, The Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford OX2 6HE, UK.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

A decrease in habitual physical activity accompanies old age in mammalian species and in healthy man.74,142 This is not simply a consequence of a parallel decline in exercise capacity, and factors other than those which limit aerobic capacity and endurance performance must be involved.143 Moreover, most old people remain at least moderately active.144 Everyday activities may require cardiorespiratory and muscle performance which is much nearer the maximum in elderly individuals than in younger people and further reduction in reserves by, for example, illness, will more readily cause disability.

Regular moderate activity is sufficient to mitigate declining exercise capacity and muscle performance and conditioning programmes may well confer additional benefits even at advanced ages. Exercise remains good for you regardless of age. A suitable programme is one of moderate to high workrates, involving large muscle groups and performed for 15–30 minutes every other day.145 The intensity is best guided by heart rate, for which a variety of formulae have been proposed.146

The complex interaction of physiological factors influencing muscular performance has been illustrated. Only when these physiological processes are disentangled and better defined will we elucidate the molecular mechanisms which underlie age-associated changes. It is not yet possible to define the relative importance of intrinsic and extrinsic influences, but the proportion of the decline in VO2 max which is directly attributable to intrinsic aging is smaller than is usually assumed, probably less than 50%.147 While the most critical determinant of VO2 max in young subjects is probably cardiac output,148 we now recognize that in elderly people the balance shifts; muscle performance, changes in blood distribution and peripheral microvascular capacity become ever more important determinants of exercise performance and should command increasing research interest.

Type
Biological gerontology
Information
Reviews in Clinical Gerontology , Volume 1 , Issue 4 , November 1991 , pp. 323 - 336
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1991

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Dehn, MM, Bruce, RA. Longitudinal variations in maximal oxygen intake with age and activity. J Appl Physiol 1972; 33: 805–807.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
2Mann, GV, Schaffer, RD, Rich, A. Physical fitness and immunity to heart disease in Masai. Lancet 1965; ii: 1308–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3Weitz, CA. The effects of aging and habitual activity pattern on exercise performance among a high altitude Nepalese population, [Thesis]. Pennsylvania State University, 1973: 175.Google Scholar
4Fuchi, T, Iwaoka, K, Higuchi, M, Kobayashi, S. Cardiovascular changes associated with decreased aerobic capacity and aging in long distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 58: 884–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5Shephard, RJ. World standards of cardiorespiratory performance. Arch Environ Health 1966; 13: 664–72.Google Scholar
6Saltin, B, Blomquist, G, Mitchell, J et al. Response to exercise after bedrest and after training: a longitudinal study of adaptive changes in oxygen transport and composition. Circulation 1968; 33 (suppl 7): 1–78.Google Scholar
7Adams, WC, McHenry, MM, Bernauer, EM. Multistage treadmill walking performance and associated cardiorespiratory responses of middleaged men. Clin Sci 1972; 42: 355–70.Google Scholar
8Edge, JR, Millard, FJC, Reid, L, Simon, G. The radiographic appearance of the chest in persons of advanced age. Br J Radiol 1964; 37: 769–74.Google Scholar
9Estenne, M, Yernault, J, de Troyer, A. Rib cage and diaphragm-abdomen compliance in humans: effect of age and posture. J Appl Physiol 1985; 59: 1842–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10Rizzato, G, Marazinni, L, Thoracoabdominal mechanics in elderly men. J Appl Physiol 1970; 28: 457–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11Mittman, C, Edelman, NH, Norris, AH, Shock, NW. Relationship between chest wall and pulmonary compliance and age. J Appl Physiol 1965; 20: 1211–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12Turner, JM, Mead, J, Wohl, ME. Elasticity of human lungs in relation to age. J Appl Physiol 1968; 25: 664–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13Pierce, JA, Ebert, RV. Fibrous network of the lungs and its change with age. Thorax 1965; 20: 469–76.Google Scholar
14Black, LF, Hyatt, RE. Maximal respiratory pressures: normal values and relationship to age and sex. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969; 99: 696–702.Google Scholar
15Nochomovitz, ML, Cherniack, NS. Age-related changes in respiratory function. Geriatr Med 1984; 3: 49–60.Google Scholar
16Pump, KK. The aged lung. Chest 1971; 60: 571–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17Reid, L. The pathology of emphysema. London: Lloyd-Luke, 1967.Google Scholar
18Thurlbeck, WM, Angus, GE. Growth and aging of the normal human lung. Chest 1975; 67: 38–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19Jones, RL, Overton, T, Hammerlindel, DM, Sproule, BJ. Effects of age on regional residual volume. J Appl Physiol 1978; 44: 195–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20Muiesan, G, Sorbini, CA, Grassi, V. Respiratory function in the aged. Bull Physiopath Respir 1971; 7: 973–1009.Google ScholarPubMed
21Allen, SC. The relation between height, armspan and forced expiratory volume in elderly women. Age Ageing 1989; 18: 113–16.Google Scholar
22Morris, JF, Koski, A, Johnson, LC. Spirometric standards for healthy nonsmoking adults. Am Rev Respir Dis 1971; 103: 57–67.Google ScholarPubMed
23Norris, A, Shock, N, Yiengst, M. Age differences in ventilatory and gas exchange responses in graded exercise in males. J Gerontol 1955; 10: 145–55.Google Scholar
24Bafitis, H, Sageant, F. Human physiological adaptability through the life sequence. J Gerontol 1977; 32: 402–10.Google Scholar
25Wasserman, K. Physiology of gas exchange and exertional dyspnoea. Clin Sci 1981; 61: 7–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26Kronenberg, RS, Drage, CW. Attenuation of the ventilatory and heart rate response to hypoxia and hypercapnia with aging in normal men. J Clin Invest 1973; 52: 1812–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27Peterson, DD, Pack, AL, Silage, DA et al. Effects of aging on ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 124: 387–91.Google Scholar
28Yamamoto, WS. Mathematical analysis of the time course of alveolar CO2. J Appl Physiol 1960; 15: 215–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29Culver, BH, Butler, J. Alterations in pulmonary function. In: Andres, R, Biermann, EL, Hazzard, WR eds. Principles of geriatric medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985: 280–87.Google Scholar
30Harris, EA, Kenyon, AM, Nisbet, HD, Seelye, ER, Whitlock, RML. The normal alveolar-arterial oxygen tension gradient in man. Clin Sci Mol Med 1974; 46: 89–104.Google Scholar
31Crapo, RO, Morris, AH. Standardised single-breath normal values for carbon monoxide diffusing capacity. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 123: 185–89.Google Scholar
32Georges, R, Saumomn, G, Lioseau, A. The relationship of age to pulmonary membrane conductance and capillary blood volume. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978; 117: 1069–78.Google Scholar
33Hamer, NAJ. The effect of age on the components of the pulmonary diffusing capacity. Clin Sci 1962; 23: 85–93.Google Scholar
34Buist, AS, Ross, BB. Quantitative analysis of the plateau in the diagnosis of early airway obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis 1973; 107: 744–52.Google Scholar
35Le Blanc, P, Ruff, F, Milic-Emili, J. Effects of age and body position on ‘airway closure’ in man. J Appl Physiol 1970; 28: 448–51.Google Scholar
36Corbet, A, Ross, J, Beaudry, P. The effect of age on arterial-alveolar nitrogen difference in normal adults. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1975; 53: 63–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37Kronenberg, R, Drage, C, Ponto, R, Williams, L. The effect of age on the distribution of ventilation and perfusion in the lung. Am Rev Respir Dis 1973; 108: 576–86.Google Scholar
38Darr, KC, Bassett, DR, Morgan, BJ, Thomas, DP. Effects of age and training status on heart rate recovery after peak exercise. Am J Physiol 1988; 254: H340–H43.Google ScholarPubMed
39Emergil, C, Sobol, BJ, Campodonico, S, Herbert, WH, Mechicati, R. Pulmonary circulation in the aged. J Appl Physiol 1967; 23: 631–40.Google Scholar
40Davies, CTM. The oxygen transporting system in relation to age. Clin Sci 1972; 42: 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41Niinimaa, V, Shephard, RJ. Training and oxygen conductance in the elderly. J Gerontol 1978; 33: 354–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42Wasserman, K. Breathing during exercise. N Engl J Med 1978; 298: 780–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43Saltin, B, Hartley, LH, Kilbom, A, Astrand, I. Physical training in sedentary middle-aged and older men. II: Oxygen uptake, heart rate and blood lactate concentration at submaximal and maximal exercise. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1969; 24: 323–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44Tlusty, L, Physical fitness in old age. II: Anaerobic capacity, anaerobic work in graded exercise, recovery after maximum work performance in elderly individuals. Respiration 1969; 26: 287–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45Wasserman, K, Whipp, BJ, Koyal, SN, Beaver, WL. Anaerobic threshold and respiratory gas exchange during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1973; 35: 236–43.Google Scholar
46Cunningham, DA, Nancekievill, EA, Paterson, DH, Donner, AD, Rechnitzer, PA. Ventilation threshold and aging. J Gerontol 1985; 40: 703–707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47Hagberg, JM, Seals, DJ, Yerg, JE et al. Metabolic response to exercise in young and older athletes and sedentary men. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65: 900–908.Google Scholar
48Chick, TW, Cagle, TG, Vegas, FA, Poliner, JK, Murata, GH. The effect of aging on submaximal exercise performance and recovery. J Gerontol 1991; 46: B34–B38.Google Scholar
49Patrick, JM, Bassey, EJ, Fentem, PH. The rising ventilatory cost of bicycle exercise in the seventh decade: a longitudinal study of 9 healthy men. Clin Sci 1983; 65: 521–26.Google Scholar
50Shephard, RJ, Cox, M. Step test prediction of maximal oxygen uptake before and after an employee fitness programme. Can J Appl Sports Sci 1982; 7: 197–201.Google Scholar
51Bye, PTP, Farkas, GA, Roussos, CH. Respiratory factors limiting exercise. Ann Rev Physiol 1983; 45: 439–51.Google Scholar
52Brandfonbrener, M, Landone, M, Shock, N. Changes in cardiac output with age. Circulation 1955; 12: 557–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53Lakatta, E. Alterations in the cardiovascular system that occur in advanced age. Fed Proc 1979; 38: 163–67.Google ScholarPubMed
54Rodehoffer, RJ, Gerstenblith, G, Becker, LC, Fleg, JL, Weisfeldt, ML, Lakatta, EG. Exercise cardiac output is maintained with advancing age in healthy human subjects. Cardiac dilatation and increased stroke volume compensate for a diminished heart rate. Circulation 1984; 69: 203–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
55Gerstenblith, G, Frederiksen, FC, Yin, FCP, Fortuin, NJ, Lakatta, EG, Weisfeldt, ML. Echocardiographic assessment of a normal adult aging population. Circulation 1977; 56: 273–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56Konishi, T, Koyama, T, Aoki, T et al. Influence of age on left ventricular performance during exercise in normal Japanese subject: assessment by radionuclide ventriculography. Ann Nucl Med 1990; 4: 19–27.Google Scholar
57Lakatta, EG. Changes in cardiovascular function with aging. Eur Heart J 1990; 11: 22–29.Google Scholar
58Tipton, CM. Exercise, training and hypertension. Exerc Sports Sci Rev 1984; 12: 245–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59Pace, N. Weightlessness: a matter of gravity. N Engl J Med 1977; 297: 32–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60Astrand, I. Aerobic work capacity in men and women with special reference to age. Acta Physiol Scand 1960; 49 (suppl 169): 1–92.Google Scholar
61Cooper, KH, Purdy, JG, White, SR, Pollock, ML, Linnerud, AC. Age-fitness adjusted maximal heart rates. In: Brunner, D, Jokl, E eds. Medicine and sport, Volume 10, Basel: Karger, 1977: 78–88.Google Scholar
62Fitzgerald, D, Doyle, V, Kelly, JG, O'Malley, K. Cardiac sensitivity to isoprenaline, lymphocyte β-adrenoceptors and age. Clin Sci 1984; 66: 697–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63Lakatta, EG, Gerstenblith, G, Angell, CS, Shock, NW, Weisfeldt, ML. Diminished inotropic response of aged myocardium to catecholamines. Circ Res 1975; 36: 262–69.Google Scholar
64Gribbin, B, Pickering, TG, Sleight, P, Peto, R. Effect of age and high blood pressure on baroreflex sensitivity in man. Circ Res 1971; 29: 424–31.Google Scholar
65Seals, DR, Hagberg, JM, Hurley, BF et al. Endurance training in older men and women. I: Cardiovascular responses to exercise. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57: 1024–29.Google Scholar
66Davies, CTM, White, MJ. Contractile properties of elderly human triceps surae. Gerontology 1983; 29: 19–25.Google Scholar
67Gutmann, E, Hanzlikova, V. Fast and slow motor units in ageing. Gerontology 1976; 22: 280–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68Fitts, RH, Troup, JP, Hollosky, JO. The effect of ageing and exercise on skeletal muscle function. Mech Ageing Dev 1984; 27: 161–72.Google Scholar
69Shephard, RJ. Physical activity and aging. London: Croom Helm, 1987: 48.Google Scholar
70Borkan, GA, Huits, DE, Gerzof, SG et al. Age changes in body composition revealed by computed tomography. J Gerontol 1983; 38: 673–77.Google Scholar
71Young, A, Stokes, M, Crowe, M. The size and strength of the quadriceps muscles of old and young men. Clin Physiol 1985; 5: 145–54.Google Scholar
72Forsyth, R, Plyley, MJ, Shephard, RJ. Estimation of body fatness of Canadian Forces. Can J Sport Sci 1984; 9: 5.Google Scholar
73Shephard, RJ. Physical activity and aging. London: Croom Helm, 1987: 50.Google Scholar
74Sidney, KH, Shephard, RJ, Harrison, J. Endurance training and body composition of the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr 1977; 30: 326–33.Google Scholar
75Novak, LP. Aging, total body potassium, fat-free mass and cell mass in males and females between ages 18 and 85 years. J Gerontol 1972; 27: 438–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76Flegg, JL, Lakatta, EG. Loss of muscle mass is a major determinant of the age-related decline in maximal aerobic capacity. Circulation 1985; 72 (suppl III): 464.Google Scholar
77Asmussen, E, Fruensgaard, K, Norgaard, SA. A followup longitudinal study of selected physiological functions in former physical education students after forty years. J Am Geriatr Soc 1975; 23: 442–50.Google Scholar
78Shock, NW, Norris, AH. Neuromuscular coordination as a factor in age changes in muscular exercise. In: Brunner, D, Jokl, E eds. Physical activity and aging. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1970.Google Scholar
79LaForest, S, St-Pierre, DM, Cyr, J, Gayton, D. Effect of age on regular exercise on muscle strength and endurance. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 60: 104–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80Grimby, G, Saltin, B. The aging muscle. Clin Physiol 1983; 3: 209–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
81McLennan, WJ, Hall, MRP, Timothy, JI, Robinson, M. Is weakness in old age due to muscle wasting? Age Ageing 1980; 9: 188–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82Shafiq, SA, Shimizu, T, Fischman, DA. Heterogeneity of type I skeletal muscle fibers revealed by monoclonal antibody to slow myosin. Muscle Nerve 1984; 84: 380–87.Google Scholar
83Larsson, LG, Grimby, G, Karlsson, J. Muscle strength and speed of movement in relation to age and muscle morphology. J Appl Physiol 1979; 46: 451–56.Google Scholar
84Engel, WK. Selective and nonselective susceptibility of muscle fibre types. A new approach to human neuromuscular diseases. Arch Neurol 1970; 22: 97–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85Gibson, MC, Schultz, E. Age-related differences in absolute numbers of skeletal muscle satellite cells. Muscle Nerve 1983; 6: 574–80.Google Scholar
86Salvatori, S, Damiani, E, Zozato, F et al. Denervation induced proliferative changes in triads in rabbit skeletal muscle. Muscle Nerve 1988; 11: 1246–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87Muscatello, U, Mergreth, A, Aliuosi, M. On the differential response of sarcoplasm and mycoplasm to denervation in frog muscle. J Cell Biol 1965; 27: 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
88Jiang, MT, Narayanan, N. Effects of aging on phospholamban phosphorylation and calcium transport in rat sarcoplasmic reticulum. Mech Ageing Dev 1990; 54: 87–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
89Lakatta, EG, Spurgeon, HA. Effect of exercise on cardiac muscle performance in aged rats. Fed Proc 1987; 46: 1844–49.Google Scholar
90Luisada, AA, Watanabe, K, Bhat, PK, Roa, DB. Correlates of the echocardiographic waves of the mitral valve in normal subjects of various ages. J Am Geriatr Soc 1975; 23: 216–23.Google Scholar
91Rumberger, E, Timmermann, J. Age-changes in the force-frequency-relationship and the duration of action potential of isolated papillary muscle in the guinea pig. Eur J Appl Physiol 1975; 34: 277–84.Google Scholar
92Spurgeon, HA, Steinbach, MF, Lakatta, EG. Chronic exercise prevents characteristic age-related changes in rat cardiac contraction. Am J Physiol 1983; 244: H513–18.Google Scholar
93Capasso, JM, Malhotra, A, Remily, RM, Scheuer, J, Sonnenblick, EH. Effects of age on mechanical and electrical performance of rat myocardium. Am J Physiol 1983; 245: H72–H81.Google ScholarPubMed
94Wei, JY, Spurgeon, HA, Lakatta, EG. Excitationcontraction in rat myocardium: alterations with adult aging. Am J Physiol 1984; 246: H784–91.Google Scholar
95Froehlich, JP, Lakatta, EG, Beard, E, Spurgeon, HA, Weisfeldt, ML, Gerstenblith, G. Studies of sarcoplasmic reticulum function and contraction duration in young adult and aged rat myocardium. Mol Cell Cardiol 1978; 10: 427–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96Berger, M, Crowther, RC, Floyd, JC, Pek, S, Fajans, SS. Effect of age on fasting levels of pancreatic hormones in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1978; 47: 1183–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97Simonson, DC, DeFrozoi, RA. Glucagon physiology and aging: evidence for enhanced hepatic sensitivity. Diabetologia 1983; 25: 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98Bergstrom, J, Hermansen, L, Hultman, E, Saltin, B. Diet muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiol Scand 1967; 71: 140–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99Bergstrom, J, Hultman, E. Nutrition for maximal sports performance. J Am Med Assoc 1972; 221: 999–1006.Google Scholar
100Thomas, SG, Cunningham, DA, Thompson, J, Rechnitzer, PA. Exercise training and ventilation threshold in elderly. J Appl Physiol 1985; 59: 1472–76.Google Scholar
101Ephstein, EV. Effect of muscle activity on the phosphate metabolism in skeletal muscles of different ages. Kiev: Acad Med Nauk, 1968: (in Russian). Cited by Simonson. Physiology of work capacity and fatigue. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas, 1971.Google Scholar
102Orlander, J, Aniansson, A. Effects of physical training on skeletal muscle metabolism and ultrastructure in 70 to 75 year old men. Acta Physiol Scand 1980; 109: 149–54.Google Scholar
103Kiessling, KH, Pilstrom, L, Karlsson, J, Piehl, K. Mitochondrial volume in skeletal muscle from young physically untrained and trained healthy men and from alcoholics. Clin Sci 1973; 44: 547–54.Google Scholar
104Muscari, C, Frascaro, M, Guarnieri, C, Caldarera, CM. Mitochondrial function and superoxide generation from submitochondrial particles of aged rat hearts. Biochem Biophys Acta 1990; 1015: 200–204.Google ScholarPubMed
105Trounce, I, Byrne, E, Marzuki, S. Decline in skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiratory chain function: possible factor in ageing. Lancet 1989; i: 637–39.Google Scholar
106Smith, DO, Rosenheimer, JL. Aging at the neuromuscular junction. In: Johnson, JE ed. Aging and cell structure. New York: Plenum Press, 1984.Google Scholar
107Heath, GW, Hagberg, JM, Ehsani, AA, Hollosky, JD. A physiological comparison of young and older endurance athletes. J Appl Respir Environ Physiol 1981; 51: 634–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108Hagberg, JM. Effect of training on the decline of VO2 max with aging. Fed Proc 1987; 46: 1830–33.Google Scholar
109De Vries, H. Physiological effects of an exercise training regimen upon men aged 52–88. J Gerontol 1970; 25: 325–36.Google Scholar
110Dill, DB, Robinson, S, Ross, JC. A longitudinal study of 16 champion runners. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1967; 7: 4–27.Google Scholar
111Rodgers, MA, Hagberg, JM, Martin, WH, Ehsani, AA, Holozosky, JO. Decline in VO2 max with aging in master athletes and sedentary men. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68: 2195–99.Google Scholar
112Hodgson, J. Age and aerobic capacity of urban midwestern males [Thesis]. University of Minneapolis, 1971.Google Scholar
113Clausen, JP. Circulatory adjustments to dynamic exercise and effects of physical training in normal subjects and in patients with coronary disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1976; 18: 459–81.Google Scholar
114Astrand, PO, Rodahl, K. Physical training. In: Astrand, PO, Rodahl, K eds. Textbook of work physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977.Google Scholar
115Tzankoff, SP, Robinson, S, Pyke, FS, Brawn, CA. Physiological adjustments to work in older men as affected by physical training. J Appl Physiol 1972; 33: 663–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116David, JA, Frank, MW, Whipp, BJ, Wasserman, K. Anaerobic threshold alterations caused by endurance training in middle-aged men. J Appl Physiol 1972; 46: 1039–46.Google Scholar
117Wasserman, K, Whipp, BJ, Davis, JA. Respiratory physiology of exercise: metabolism, gas exchange and ventilatory control. Int Rev Physiol 1981; 23: 149–211.Google Scholar
118Schocken, DD, Blumenthal, JA, Parl, S, Hindle, P, Coleman, RE. Physical conditioning and left ventricular performance in the elderly: assessment by radionuclide angiocardiography. Am J Cardiol 1983; 52: 359–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
119Capasso, JM, Malhotra, A, Scheuer, J, Sonneblick, EH. Myocardial biochemical, contractile and electrical performance following imposition of hypertension in young and old rats. Circ Res 1986; 58: 445–60.Google Scholar
120Rockstein, M, Chesky, J, Lopez, T. Effect of exercise on the biochemical aging of mammalian myocardium. I: Actinomysin ATPase. J Gerontol 1981; 36: 294–97.Google Scholar
121Starnes, JW, Beyer, RE, Edington, DW. Myocardial adaptions to endurance exercise in aged rats. Am J Physiol 1983; 232: H373–80.Google Scholar
122Steinhagen-Thiessen, E, Reznick, AZ, Ringe, JD. Age dependent variations in cardiac and skeletal muscle during short and long term treadmill-running of mice. Eur Heart J 1984; 5 (suppl E): 27–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
123Scheuer, J, Tipton, CM. Cardiovascular adaptions to physical training. Ann Rev Physiol 1976; 39: 221–51.Google Scholar
124Sagiv, M, Fisher, N, Yaniv, A, Rudoy, J. Effect of running versus isometric training programme on healthy elderly at rest. Gerontology 1989; 35: 72–77.Google Scholar
125Melichna, J, Zavner, CW, Havlickova, L, Novak, J, Hill, DW, Colman, RJ. Morphological differences in skeletal muscle with age in normal active human males and their well trained counterparts. Hum Biol 1990; 62: 205–26.Google Scholar
126Klitgaard, H, Marc, R, Brunal, A, Vendewalle, H, Monod, H. Contraction properties of old rat muscles – effect of increased use. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67: 1401–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
127Tomanek, RJ, Woo, YJ. Compensatory hypertrophy of the plantaris muscle in relation to age. J Gerontol 1970; 25: 23–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
128Moritani, T, de Vries, H. Potential for gross muscle hypertrophy in older men. J Gerontol 1980; 35: 672–82.Google Scholar
129Saltin, B, Henriksson, J, Nygaard, E, Andersen, P. Fiber types and metabolic potentials of skeletal muscles in sedentary men and endurance runners. Ann NY Acad Sci 1977; 301: 3–29.Google Scholar
130Aniansson, A, Grimby, G, Rungren, A, Svanborg, A, Olander, J. Physical training in old men. Age Ageing 1980; 9: 186–87.Google Scholar
131Fiatarone, MA, Marks, EC, Ryan, ND, Meredith, CN, Lipitz, LA, Evans, WJ. High intensity strength training in nonagenarians. Effects on skeletal muscle. J Am Med Assoc 1990; 263: 3029–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
132Frontera, WR, Meredith, CN, O'Reilly, KP, Evans, WJ. Strength training and determinants of VO2 max in older men. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68: 329–33.Google Scholar
133Meredith, CN, Frontera, WR, Fisher, EC et al. Peripheral effects of endurance training in young and old subjects. J Appl Physiol 1989; 66: 2844–49.Google Scholar
134Barry, AJ, Daly, JW, Pruett, EDR et al. The effects of physical conditioning on older individuals. I: Work capacity, circulatory-respiratory function and work electrocardiogram. J Gerontol 1966; 21: 182–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
135Davies, KJ, Packer, L, Brooks, GA. Biochemical adaption of mitochondria, muscle, and whole animal respiration to endurance training. Arch Bioch Biophys 1981; 209: 539–54.Google Scholar
136Holloszy, JO, Rennie, MJ, Hickson, RC, Conlee, RK, Hagberg, JM. Physiological consequences of the biochemical adaptions to endurance exercise. Ann NY Acad Sci 1977; 301: 440–50.Google Scholar
137Wittenberg, BA, Wittenberg, JB. Transport of oxygen in muscle. Ann Rev Physiol 1989; 51: 857–78.Google Scholar
138Rowell, LB. Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress. Physiol Rev 1974; 54: 75–159.Google Scholar
139Klausen, K, Secher, NH, Clausen, JP, Hartling, O, Trap-Jensen, J. Central and regional circulatory adaptions to one-leg training. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52: 976–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
140Myrhage, R, Hudlicka, O. Capillary growth in chronically stimulated adult skeletal muscle as studied by intravital microscopy and histological methods in rabbits and rats. Microvasc Res 1978; 16: 73–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
141Aniansson, A, Grimby, G, Hedberg, M, Krotkiewski, M. Muscle morphology, enzyme activity and muscle strength in elderly men and women. Clin Physiol 1981; 1: 73–86.Google Scholar
142Jones, DC, Kimeldorf, DJ, Rubadeau, DO, Castanera, TJ. Relationships between volitional activity and age in male rat. Am J Physiol 1953; 172: 109–14.Google Scholar
143Goodrick, CL. Effect of long term voluntary wheel exercise on male and female Wistar rats. I: Longevity, body weight and metabolic rate. Gerontologica 1980; 26: 22–33.Google Scholar
144Grimby, G. Physical activity and muscle training in the elderly. Acta Med Scand 1986; 711 (suppl): 233–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
145American College of Sports Medicine. The recommended quality and quantity of exercise for developing and maintaining fitness in healthy adults. A position statement. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1978; 10: vii–x.Google Scholar
146Mahler, DA, Cunningham, LN, Curfam, GD. Aging and exercise performance. Clin Ger Med 1986; 2: 433–52.Google Scholar
147Gorman, KM, Posnar, JD. Benefits of exercise in old age. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine 1988; 4: 181–92.Google Scholar
148Shephard, RJ. Physical activity and aging. London: Croom Helm, 1987: 55.Google Scholar