Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T20:39:44.882Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Effect of diet on vascular health

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2013

CT McEvoy ,
CE Neville ,
NJ Temple  and
JV Woodside
CT McEvoy
Affiliation:
Centre for Public Health, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
CE Neville
Affiliation:
Centre for Public Health, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
NJ Temple
Affiliation:
Centre for Science, Athabasca University, Athabasca, Canada
JV Woodside*
Affiliation:
Centre for Public Health, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
*
Address for correspondence: Professor Jayne Woodside, Nutrition and Metabolism Group, Centre for Public Health, Institute of Clinical Science B, Grosvenor Road, Belfast BT12 6BJ, UK Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the Western world in older people. Diet and lifestyle change can reduce CVD risk in older people, and this evidence base is reviewed. For example, diets low in trans fats can reduce CVD risk, while for saturated fats the CVD-lowering effect depends on what is substituted for the saturated fat. Diets rich in fish reduce CVD risk, although n-3 supplements have not been shown to have a consistent effect on CVD end-points. Antioxidant and B-group vitamin supplementation are unlikely to reduce CVD risk, but diets rich in these micronutrients (e.g. rich in fruits and vegetables and the Mediterranean diet) are associated with lower CVD risk, while, for the Mediterranean diet, this has been supported by randomized controlled trials. Maintaining a healthy weight and being physically active reduce CVD risk factors and CVD incidence and mortality.

Keywords

cardiovascular disease riskolder peoplediet
Type
Review Article
Information
Reviews in Clinical Gerontology , Volume 24 , Issue 1 , February 2014 , pp. 25 - 40
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Mann, JI. Diet and risk of coronary heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Lancet 2002; 360: 783–89.Google Scholar
2Mente, A, de Koning, L, Shannon, HSet al.A systematic review of the evidence supporting a causal link between dietary factors and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med 2009; 169: 659–69.Google Scholar
3Hoenselaar, R. Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease: the discrepancy between the scientific literature and dietary advice. Nutrition 2012; 28: 118–23.Google Scholar
4Hooper, L, Summerbell, CD, Thompson, Ret al.Reduced or modified dietary fat for preventing cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 5: CD002137.Google Scholar
5Howard, BV, Van Horn, L, Hsia, Jet al.Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of cardiovascular disease: The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA 2006; 295: 655–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6Siri-Tarino, PW, Sun, Q, Hu, FB, Krauss, RM. Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies evaluating the association of saturated fat with cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 91: 535–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7Jakobsen, MU, O'Reilly, EJ, Heitmann, BLet al.Major types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 89: 1425–32.Google Scholar
8Mozaffarian, D, Micha, R, Wallace, S. Effects on coronary heart disease of increasing polyunsaturated fat in place of saturated fat: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS Med 2010; 7: e1000252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9Ramsden, CE, Zamora, D, Leelarthaepin, Bet al.Use of dietary linoleic acid for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease and death: evaluation of recovered data from the Sydney Diet Heart Study and updated meta-analysis. BMJ 2013; 346: e8707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10Mensink, RP, Zock, PL, Kester, AD, Katan, MB. Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: A meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 77: 1146–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11Astrup, A, Dyerberg, J, Elwood, Pet al.The role of reducing intakes of saturated fat in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: where does the evidence stand in 2010? Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 93: 684–88.Google Scholar
12Prospective Studies Collaboration, Lewington, S, Whitlock, Get al.Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths. Lancet 2007; 370: 1829–39.Google Scholar
13Lichtenstein, AH, Ausman, LM, Jalbert, SM, Schaefer, EJ. Effects of different forms of dietary hydrogenated fats on serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 1933–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14de Roos, NM, Schouten, EG, Scheek, LM, van Tol, A, Katan, MB. Replacement of dietary saturated fat with trans fat reduces serum paraoxonase activity in healthy men and women. Metabolism 2002; 51: 1534–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15Van Horn, L, Mc Coin, M, Kris-Etherton, PMet al.The evidence for dietary prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. J Am Diet Assoc 2008; 108: 287–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16He, K, Song, Y, Daviglus, MLet al.Accumulated evidence on fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Circulation 2004; 109: 2705–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17Whelton, SP, He, J, Whelton, PK, Muntner, P. Meta-analysis of observational studies on fish intake and coronary heart disease. Am J Cardiol 2004; 93: 1119–23.Google Scholar
18Chowdhury, R, Stevens, S, Gorman, Det al.Association between fish consumption, long chain omega 3 fatty acids, and risk of cerebrovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2012; 345: e6698.Google Scholar
19Rizos, EC, Ntzani, EE, Bika, E, Kostapanos, MS, Elisaf, MS. Association between omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and risk of major cardiovascular disease events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2012; 308: 1024–33.Google Scholar
20Kwak, SM, Myung, SK, Lee, YJ, Seo, HG; Korean Meta-analysis Study Group. Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplements (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 2012; 172: 686–94.Google ScholarPubMed
21Miettinen, TA, Puska, P, Gylling, H, Vanhanen, H, Vartiainen, E. Reduction of serum cholesterol with sitostanol-ester margarine in a mildly hypercholesterolemic population. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1308–12.Google Scholar
22Blair, SN, Capuzzi, DM, Gottlieb, SO, Nguyen, T, Morgan, JM, Cater, NB. Incremental reduction of serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol with the addition of plant stanol estercontaining spread to statin therapy. Am J Cardiol 2000; 86: 46–52.Google Scholar
23Maki, KC, Davidson, MH, Umporowicz, DMet al.Lipid responses to plantsterol-enriched reduced-fat spreads incorporated into a National Cholesterol Education Program Step I diet. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 74: 33–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24Christiansen, LI, Lahteenmaki, PL, Mannelin, MR, Seppanen-Laakso, TE, Hiltunen, RV, Yliruusi, JK. Cholesterol-lowering effect of spreads enriched with microcrystalline plant sterols in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Eur J Nutr 2001; 40: 66–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25Volpe, R, Niittynen, L, Korpela, R, Sirtori, C, Bucci, A, Fraone, N, Pazzucconi, F. Effects of yoghurt enriched with plant sterols on serum lipids in patients with moderate hypercholesterolaemia. Br J Nutr 2001; 86: 233–39.Google Scholar
26Moruisi, KG, Oosthuizen, W, Opperman, AM. Phytosterols/stanols lower cholesterol concentrations in familial hypercholesterolemic subjects: a systematic review with meta-analysis. J Am Coll Nutr 2006; 25: 41–48.Google Scholar
27Law, M. Plant sterol and stanol margarines and health. BMJ 2000; 320: 861–64.Google Scholar
28Gylling, H, Radhakrishnan, R, Miettinen, TA. Reduction of serum cholesterol in postmenopausal women with previous myocardial infarction and cholesterol malabsorption induced by dietary sitostanol ester margarine: women and dietary sitostanol. Circulation 1997; 96: 4226–31.Google Scholar
29Silbernagel, G, Genser, B, Nestel, P, März, W. Plant sterols and atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol 2013; 24: 12–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30Jenkins, DJ, Wolever, TM, Taylor, RHet al.Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. Am J Clin Nutr 1981; 34: 362–66.Google Scholar
31Kristo, AS, Matthan, NR, Lichtenstein, AH. Effect of diets differing in glycemic index and glycemic load on cardiovascular risk factors: review of randomized controlled-feeding trials. Nutrients 2013; 5: 1071–80.Google Scholar
32Dong, JY, Zhang, YH, Wang, P, Qin, LQ. Meta-analysis of dietary glycemic load and glycemic index in relation to risk of coronary heart disease. Am J Cardiol 2012; 109: 1608–13.Google Scholar
33Fan, J, Song, Y, Wang, Y, Hui, R, Zhang, W. Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and stroke mortality: a systematic review with meta-analysis. PLoS One 2012; 7: e52182.Google Scholar
34Ma, XY, Liu, JP, Song, ZY. Glycemic load, glycemic index and risk of cardiovascular diseases: meta-analyses of prospective studies. Atherosclerosis 2012; 223: 491–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35Heuberger, RA. Alcohol and the older adult: a comprehensive review. J Nutr Elder 2009; 28: 203–35.Google Scholar
36Mukamal, KJ, Jensen, MK, Grønbaek, Met al.Drinking frequency, mediating biomarkers, and risk of myocardial infarction in women and men. Circulation 2005; 112: 1406–13.Google Scholar
37Rimm, E. Alcohol and cardiovascular disease. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2000; 2: 529–35.Google Scholar
38Danaei, G, Ding, EL, Mozaffarian, Det al.The preventable causes of death in the United States: comparative risk assessment of dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors. PLoS Med 2009; 6: e1000058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39Thadhani, R, Camargo, CA Jr, Stampfer, MJ, Curhan, GC, Willett, WC, Rimm, EB. Prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and risk of hypertension in young women. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 569–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40Corrao, G, Bagnardi, V, Zambon, A, La Vecchia, C. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases. Prev Med 2004; 38: 613–19.Google Scholar
41Patra, J, Taylor, B, Irving, Het al.Alcohol consumption and the risk of morbidity and mortality for different stroke types – a systematic review and meta-analyis. BMC Public Health 2010; 10: 258.Google Scholar
42Temple, NJ. What are the health implications of alcohol consumption? TempleWilson T, NJ & Jacobs, DR (eds), 2012, pp. 323–34. Nutritional Health: Strategies for Disease Prevention, 3rd edn. New York, Humana Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43Di Castelnuovo, A, Rotondo, S, Iacoviello, L, Donati, MB, De Gaetano, G. Meta-analysis of wine and beer consumption in relation to vascular risk. Circulation 2002; 105: 2836–44.Google Scholar
44Costanzo, S, Di Castelnuovo, A, Donati, MB, locoviello, L, de Gaetano, G. Wine, beer or spirit drinking in relation to fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol 2011; 26: 833–50.Google Scholar
45Webster, JL, Dunford, EK, Hawkes, C, Neal, BC. Salt reduction initiatives around the world. J Hypertens 2011; 29: 1043–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46He, FJ, MacGregor, GA. A comprehensive review on salt and health and current experience of worldwide salt reduction programmes. J Hum Hypertens 2009; 23: 363–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47He, FJ, Li, J, Macgregor, GA. Effect of longer term modest salt reduction on blood pressure: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ 2013; 346: f1325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48Aburto, NJ, Ziolkovska, A, Hooper, L, Elliott, P, Cappuccio, FP, Meerpohl, JJ. Effect of lower sodium intake on health: systematic review and meta-analyses. BMJ 2013; 346: f1326.Google Scholar
49Bibbins-Domingo, K, Chertow, GM, Coxson, PGet al.Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 590–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50World Health Organization. Reducing salt intake in populations: Report of a WHO Forum and Technical Meeting, 5–7 October 2006, Paris, France. WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007.Google Scholar
51Brinsden, HC, He, FJ, Jenner, KH, MacGregor, G. Surveys of the salt content in UK bread: progress made and further reductions possible. BMJ Open 2013; 3: e002936.Google Scholar
52Temple, NJ. Population strategies to reduce sodium intake: the right way and the wrong way. Nutrition 2011; 27: 387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53Yudkin, J. Pure, white and deadly. London: Davis-Poynter Ltd, 1972.Google Scholar
54Yudkin, J.Sucrose and cardiovascular disease. Proc Nutr Soc 1972; 31: 331–37.Google Scholar
55Fung, TT, Malik, V, Rexrode, KM, Manson, JE, Willett, WC, Hu, FB. Sweetened beverage consumption and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 89: 1037–42.Google Scholar
56Winkelmayer, WC, Stampfer, MJ, Willett, WC, Curhan, GC. Habitual caffeine intake and the risk of hypertension in women. JAMA 2005; 294: 2330–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57Dhingra, R, Sullivan, L, Jacques, PFet al.Soft drink consumption and risk of developing cardiometabolic risk factors and the metabolic syndrome in middle-aged adults in the community. Circulation 2007; 116: 480–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58Crowe, FL, Key, TJ, Appleby, PNet al.Dietary fibre intake and ischaemic heart disease mortality: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition-Heart study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2012; 66: 950–56.Google Scholar
59Mozaffarian, D, Appel, LJ, Van Horn, L. Components of a cardioprotective diet: new insights. Circulation 2011; 123: 2870–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60Ye, EQ, Chacko, SA, Chou, EL, Kugizaki, M, Liu, S. Greater whole-grain intake is associated with lower risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and weight gain. J Nutr 2012; 142: 1304–13.Google Scholar
61Kelly, SA, Summerbell, CD, Brynes, A, Whittaker, V, Frost, G. Wholegrain cereals for coronary heart disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 2: CD005051.Google Scholar
62Wald, DS, Law, M, Morris, JK. Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease: evidence on causality from a meta-analysis. BMJ 2002; 325: 1202.Google Scholar
63Homocysteine Studies Collaboration. Homocysteine and risk of ischemic heart disease and stroke: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2002; 288: 2015–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
64Homocysteine Lowering Trialists’ Collaboration. Lowering blood homocysteine with folic acid based supplements: meta-analysis of randomised trials. Homocysteine Lowering Trialists’ Collaboration. BMJ 1998; 316: 894–98.Google Scholar
65Homocysteine Lowering Trialists’ Collaboration. Dose-dependent effects of folic acid on blood concentrations of homocysteine: a meta-analysis of the randomized trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 82: 806–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
66Bazzano, LA, Reynolds, K, Holder, KN, He, J. Effect of folic acid supplementation on risk of cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 2006; 296: 2720–26.Google Scholar
67Wang, X, Qin, X, Demirtas, Het al.Efficacy of folic acid supplementation in stroke prevention: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2007; 369: 1876–82.Google Scholar
68Lee, M, Hong, KS, Chang, SCet al.Efficacy of homocysteine lowering therapy with folic acid in stroke prevention: a meta-analysis. Stroke 2010; 41: 1205–12.Google Scholar
69Huang, T, Chen, Y, Yang, B, Yang, J, Wahlqvist, ML, Duo, L. Meta-analysis of B vitamin supplementation on plasma homocysteine, cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. Clin Nutr 2012; 31: 448–54.Google Scholar
70Yang, H, Lee, M, Hong, K, Ovbiagele, B, Saver, JL. Efficacy of folic acid supplementation in cardiovascular disease prevention: An updated meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Eur J Int Med 2012; 23: 745–54.Google Scholar
71Clarke, R, Halsey, J, Lewington, Set al.Effects of lowering homocysteine levels with B vitamins on cardiovascular disease, cancer, and cause-specific mortality. Arch Intern Med 2010; 170: 1622–31.Google Scholar
72Moats, C, Rimm, EB. Vitamin intake and risk of coronary disease: observation versus intervention. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2007; 9: 508–14.Google Scholar
73Vivekananthan, DP, Penn, MS, Sapp, SK, Hsu, A, Topol, EJ. Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet 2003; 361: 2017–23.Google Scholar
74Bin, Q, Hu, X, Cao, Y, Gao, F. The role of vitamin E (tocopherol) supplementation in the prevention of stroke. A meta-analysis of 13 randomised controlled trials. Thromb Haemost 2011; 105: 579–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75HOPE and HOPE-TOO Investigators. Effect of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer. A randomised controlled trial. JAMA 2005; 293: 1338–47.Google Scholar
76Miller, ER, Pastor-Barriuso, R, Dalal, D, Riemersma, RA. Meta-analysis: high-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality. Annals Intern Med 2005; 142: 37–46.Google Scholar
77Boaz, M, Smetana, S, Weinstein, Tet al.Secondary prevention with antioxidants of cardiovascular disease in endstage renal disease (SPACE): randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 356: 1213–18.Google Scholar
78Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. Incidence of cancer and mortality following alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation: a post intervention follow-up. JAMA 2004; 290: 476–85.Google Scholar
79Goodman, GE, Thornquist, MD, Balmes, Jet al.The Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial: incidence of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality during 6-year follow-up after stopping beta-carotene and retinol supplements. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96: 1743–50.Google Scholar
80Bjelakovic, G, Nikolova, D, Gluud, LL, Simonetti, RG, Gluud, C. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2007; 297: 842–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81Bjelakovic, G, Nikolova, D, Gluud, LL, Simonetti, RG, Gluud, C. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008: CD007176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82National Institutes of Health State-of-the-Science Panel. National Institutes of Health State-of-the-Science Conference Statement: multivitamin/mineral supplements and chronic disease prevention. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 85: 257–64S.Google Scholar
83Kokubo, K, Iso, H, Ishihara, Jet al.Association of dietary intake of soy, beans and isoflavones with risk of cerebral and myocardial infarctions in Japanese populations: the Japan Public Health Center-based (JPHC) study cohort 1. Circulation 2007; 116: 2553–62.Google Scholar
84Mink, PJ, Scrafford, CG, Barraj, LMet al.Flavonoid intakes and cardiovascular disease mortality: a prospective study in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 85: 895–909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85Mursu, J, Voutilainen, S, Numi, I, Tuomainen, TP, Kurl, S, Salonen, JT. Flavonoid intake and the risk of ischaemic stroke and CVD mortality in middle aged Finnish men: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Br J Nutr 2008; 100: 890–95.Google Scholar
86McCullough, ML, Peterson, JJ, Patel, R, Jacques, PF, Shah, R, Dwyer, JT. Flavonoid intakes and cardiovascular disease mortality in a prospective cohort of US adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 95: 454–64.Google Scholar
87Hooper, L, Kroon, PA, Rimm, EBet al.Flavonoids, flavonoid rich foods and cardiovascular risk: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 88: 38–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88Hooper, L, Kay, C, Abdelhomid, Aet al.Effect of chocolate, cocoa and flavan-3-ols on cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 95: 740–51.Google Scholar
89Schottker, B, Haug, U, Schomburg, Let al.Strong associations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations with all-cause, cardiovascular, cancer, and respiratory disease mortality in a large cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr 2013; 97: 782–93.Google Scholar
90Schierbeck, LL, Rejnmark, L, Tofteng, CLet al.Vitamin D deficiency in postmenopausal, healthy women predicts increased cardiovascular events: a 16-year follow-up study. Eur J Endocrinol 2012; 167: 553–60.Google Scholar
91Pittas, AG, Chung, M, Trikalinos, Tet al.Systematic review: vitamin D and cardiometabolic outcomes. Ann Intern Med 2010; 152: 307–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92Semba, RD, Houston, DK, Bandinelli, Set al.Relationship of 25-hydroxyvitamin D with all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in older community-dwelling adults. Eur J Clin Nutr 2010; 64: 203–9.Google Scholar
93Kendrick, J, Targher, G, Smits, G, Chonchol, M. 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency is independently associated with cardiovascular disease in the Third National health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Atherosclerosis 2009; 205: 255–60.Google Scholar
94Ginde, AA, Scragg, R, Schwartz, RS, Camargo, CA Jr. Prospective study of serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D level, cardiovascular disease mortality, and all-cause mortality in older US adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2009; 57: 1595–603.Google Scholar
95Szulc, P, Claustrat, B, Delmas, PD. Serum concentrations of 17β-E2 and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25OHD) in relation to all-cause mortality in older men – the MINOS study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009; 71: 594–602.Google Scholar
96Wang, L, Song, Y, Manson, JEet al.Circulating 25-hydroxy-vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2012; 5: 819–29.Google Scholar
97Parker, J, Hashmi, O, Dutton, Det al.Levels of vitamin D and cardiometabolic disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis. Maturitas 2010; 65: 225–36.Google Scholar
98Grandi, NC, Breitling, LP, Brenner, H. Vitamin D and cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Prev Med 2010; 51: 228–33.Google Scholar
99Sokol, SI, Tsang, P, Aggarwal, Vet al.Vitamin D status and risk of cardiovascular events: lessons learned via systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardio Rev 2011; 19: 192–201.Google Scholar
100Sun, Q, Pan, A, Hu, FB, Manson, JE, Rexrode, KM. 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the risk of stroke: a prospective study and meta-analysis. Stroke 2012; 43: 1470–77.Google Scholar
101Brondum-Jacobsen, P, Nordestgaard, BG, Schnohr, P, Benn, M. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and symptomatic ischemic stroke: an original study and meta-analysis. Ann Neurol 2013; 73: 38–47.Google Scholar
102Sokol, SI, Tsang, P, Aggarwal, V, Melamed, ML, Srinivas, VS. Vitamin D status and risk of cardiovascular events: lessons learned via systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardio Rev 2011; 19: 192–201.Google Scholar
103Elamin, MB, Elnour, NOA, Elamin, KBet al.Vitamin D and cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96: 1931–42.Google Scholar
104Wang, L, Manson, JE, Song, Y, Sesso, HD. Systematic review: vitamin D and calcium supplementation in prevention of cardiovascular events. Ann Intern Med 2010; 152: 315–23.Google Scholar
105Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington, DC: National Academy Press: 2011.Google Scholar
106Manson, JE, Bassuk, SS, Lee, IMet al.The VITamin D and OmegA-3 Trial (VITAL): rationale and design of a large randomized controlled trial of vitamin D and marine omega-3 fatty acid supplements for the primary prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Contemp Clin Trials 2012; 33: 159–71.Google Scholar
107Rashid, MN, Fuentes, F, Touchon, RC, Wehner, PS. Obesity and the risk for cardiovascular disease. Prev Cardiol 2003; 6: 42–47.Google Scholar
108Prospective Studies Collaboration, Whitlock, G, Lewington, S, et al.Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies. Lancet 2009; 373: 1083–96.Google Scholar
109Denke, MA, Sempos, CT, Grundy, SM. Excess body weight. An under-recognised contributor to high blood cholesterol levels in white American men. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 1093–103.Google Scholar
110Zhou, B, Wu, Y, Yang, J, Li, Y, Zhang, H, Zhao, L. Overweight is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease in Chinese populations. Obes Rev 2002; 3: 147–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111Haslam, D, Sattar, N, Lean, M. ABC of obesity. Obesity – time to wake up. BMJ 2006; 333: 640–42.Google Scholar
112Folsom, AR, Stevens, J, Schreiner, PJ, McGovern, PG. Body mass index, waist/hip ratio, and coronary heart disease incidence in African Americans and whites. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study Investigators. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 148: 1187–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113Ellekjaer, H, Holmen, J, Vatten, L. Blood pressure, smoking and body mass in relation to mortality from stroke and coronary heart disease in the elderly. A 10-year follow-up in Norway. Blood Press 2001; 10: 156–63.Google Scholar
114Tanasescu, M, Leitzmann, MF, Rimm, EB, Willett, WC, Stampfer, MJ, Hu, FB. Exercise type and intensity in relation to coronary heart disease in men. JAMA 2002; 288: 1994–2000.Google Scholar
115Manson, JE, Greenland, P, LaCroix, AZet al.Walking compared with vigorous exercise for the prevention of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 716–25.Google Scholar
116Lakka, TA, Venalainen, JM, Rauramaa, R, Salonen, R, Tuomilehto, J, Salonen, JT. Relation of leisure-time physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness to the risk of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 1549–54.Google Scholar
117Joliffe, JA, Rees, K, Taylor, RS, Thompson, D, Oldridge, N, Ebrahim, S. Exercise-based rehabilitation for coronary heart disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000: CD001800.Google Scholar
118Kohl, HW 3rd, Craig, CL, Lambert, EV, Inoue, S, Alkandari, JR, Leetongin, G, Kahlmeier, S; Lancet Physical Activity Series Working Group. The pandemic of physical inactivity: global action for public health. Lancet 2012; 380: 294–305.Google Scholar
119Heath, GW, Parra, DC, Sarmiento, OL, et al.Evidence-based intervention in physical activity: lessons from around the world. Lancet 2012; 380: 272–81.Google Scholar
120Thompson, PD, Lim, V. Physical activity in the prevention of atherosclerotic coronary heart disease. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med 2003; 5: 279–85.Google Scholar
121Blair, SN, Connelly, JC. How much physical activity should we do? The case for moderate amounts and intensities of physical activity. Res Q Exerc Sport 1996; 67: 193–205.Google Scholar
122Bauman, AE, Reis, RS, Sallis, JF, Wells, JC, Loos, RJ, Martin, BW; Lancet Physical Activity Series Working Group. Correlates of physical activity: why are some people physically active and others not? Lancet 2012; 380: 258–71.Google Scholar
123Brownson, RC, Boehmer, TK, Luke, DA. Declining rates of physical activity in the United States: what are the contributors? Ann Rev Public Health 2005; 26: 421–43.Google Scholar
124Hallal, PC, Andersen, LB, Bull, FC, Guthold, R, Haskell, W, Ekelund, U; Lancet Physical Activity Series Working Group. Global physical activity levels: surveillance progress, pitfalls, and prospects. Lancet 2012; 380: 247–57.Google Scholar
125Manach, C, Williamson, G, Morand, C, Scalbert, A, Rémésy, C. Bioavailability and bioefficacy of polyphenols in humans. I. Review of 97 bioavailability studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 81: 230–42S.Google Scholar
126Woodside, JV, McCall, D, McGartland, C, Young, IS. Micronutrients: dietary intake v. supplement use. Proc Nutr Soc 2005; 64: 543–53.Google Scholar
127Woodside, JV, Young, IS, McKinley, MC. Fruits and vegetables: measuring intake and encouraging increased consumption. Proc Nutr Soc 2013; 72: 236–45.Google Scholar
128Dauchet, L, Amouyel, P, Dallongeville, J. Fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of stroke: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Neurology 2005; 65: 1193–97.Google Scholar
129Dauchet, L, Amouyel, P, Hercberg, Set al.Fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. J Nutr 2006; 136: 2588–93.Google Scholar
130He, FJ, Nowson, CA, MacGregor, GA. Fruit and vegetable consumption and stroke: meta-analysis of cohort studies. Lancet 2006; 367: 320–26.Google Scholar
131He, FJ, Nowson, CA, Lucas, M, MacGregor, GA. Increased consumption of fruit and vegetables is related to a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: meta-analysis of cohort studies. J Hum Hypertens 2007; 21: 717–28.Google Scholar
132Takachi, R, Inoue, M, Ishihara, Jet al.Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of total cancer and cardiovascular disease: Japan Public Health Center-Based Prospective Study. Am J Epidemiol 2008; 167: 59–70.Google Scholar
133Dauchet, L, Montaye, M, Ruidavets, JBet al.Association between the frequency of fruit and vegetable consumption and cardiovascular disease in male smokers and non-smokers. Eur J Clin Nutr 2010; 64: 578–86.Google Scholar
134Oude Griep, LM, Geleijnse, JMet al.Raw and processed fruit and vegetable consumption and 10-year coronary heart disease incidence in a population-based cohort study in the Netherlands. PLoS One 2010; 5: e13609.Google Scholar
135Bendinelli, B, Masala, G, Saieva, Cet al.Fruit, vegetables, and olive oil and risk of coronary heart disease in Italian women: the EPICOR Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 93: 275–283.Google Scholar
136Crowe, FL, Roddam, AW, Key, TJet al.Fruit and vegetable intake and mortality from ischaemic heart disease: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Heart study. Eur Heart J 2011; 32: 1235–43.Google Scholar
137John, JH, Ziebland, S, Yudkin, P, Roe, LS, Neil, HA; Oxford Fruit and Vegetable Study Group. Effects of fruit and vegetable consumption on plasma antioxidant concentrations and blood pressure: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 359: 1969–74.Google Scholar
138Appel, LJ, Moore, TJ, Obarzanek, Eet al.A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 1117–24.Google Scholar
139Broeksmans, WMR, Klopping-Ketelaars, WAA, Kluft, Cet al.Fruit and vegetables and cardiovascular risk profile: a diet controlled intervention study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2001; 55: 636–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
140McCall, DO, McGartland, CP, McKinley, MCet al.Dietary intakes of fruit and vegetables improves microvascular function in hypertensive subjects in a dose-dependent manner. Circulation 2009; 119: 2153–60.Google Scholar
141Berry, SE, Mulla, UZ, Chowienczyk, PJet al.Increased potassium intake from fruit and vegetables or supplements does not lower blood pressure or improve vascular function in UK men and women with early hypertension: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Nutr 2010; 104: 1839–47.Google Scholar
142McCall, DO, McGartland, CP, McKinley, MCet al.The effect of increased dietary fruit and vegetable consumption on endothelial activation, inflammation and oxidative stress in hypertensive volunteers. Nutr Metab Cardiovas Dis 2011; 21: 658–64.Google Scholar
143George, TW, Paterson, E, Waroonphan, S, Gordon, MH, Lovegrove, JA. Effects of chronic consumption of fruit and vegetable puree-based drinks on vasodilation, plasma oxidative stability and antioxidant status. J Hum Nutr Diet 2012; 25: 477–87.Google Scholar
144Chen, ST, Maruthur, NM, Appel, LJ. The effect of dietary patterns on estimated coronary heart disease risk: results from the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) trial. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2010; 3: 484–89.Google Scholar
145Sacks, FM, Svetkey, LP, Vollmer, WMet al.DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 3–10.Google Scholar
146Appel, LJ, Champagne, CM, Harsha, DWet al.Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on blood pressure control: main results of the PREMIER clinical trial. JAMA 2003; 289: 2083–93.Google Scholar
147Blumenthal, JA, Babyak, MA, Hinderliter, Aet al.Effects of the DASH diet alone and in combination with exercise and weight loss on blood pressure and cardiovascular biomarkers in men and women with high blood pressure: the ENCORE study. Arch Int Med 2010; 170: 126–35.Google Scholar
148Fung, TT, Chiuve, SE, McCullough, ML, Rexrode, KM, Logroscino, G, Hu, F. Adherence to a DASH-Style diet and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in women. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 713–20.Google Scholar
149Parikh, A, Lipsitz, SR, Natarajan, S. Association between a DASH-like diet and mortality in adults with hypertension: findings from a population based follow up study. Am J Hypertens 2009; 22: 409–16.Google Scholar
150Folsom, AR, Parker, ED, Harnack, LJ. Degree of concordance with DASH diet guidelines and incidence of hypertension and fatal cardiovascular disease. Am J Hypertens 2007; 20: 225–32.Google Scholar
151Fitzgerald, KC, Chiuve, SE, Buring, JE, Ridker, PM, Glynn, RJ. Comparison of associations of adherence to a Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH)-style diet with risks of cardiovascular disease and venous thromboembolism. J Thromb Haemost 2012; 10: 189–98.Google Scholar
152Tunstall-Pedoe, H, Kuulasmaa, K, Mahonen, M, Tolonen, H, Ruokokoski, E, Amouyel, P. Contribution of trends in survival and coronary-event rate to changes in coronary heart disease mortality: 10-year results from 37 WHO MONICA project populations: monitoring trends and determinants in cardiovascular disease. Lancet 1999; 353: 1547–57.Google Scholar
153Sofi, F, Abbate, R, Gensini, GF, Casini, A. Accruing evidence on benefits of adherence to the Mediterranean diet on health: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 92: 1189–96.Google Scholar
154Gardener, H, Wright, CB, Gu, Yet al.Mediterranean-style diet and risk of ischemic stroke, myocardial infarction, and vascular death: the Northern Manhattan Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 94: 1458–64.Google Scholar
155Dilis, V, Katsoulis, M, Lagiou, P, Trichopoulos, D, Naska, A, Trichopoulou, A. Mediterranean diet and CHD: the Greek European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition cohort. Br J Nutr 2012; 108: 699–709.Google Scholar
156Menotti, A, Alberti-Fidanza, A, Fidanza, F. The association of the Mediterranean Adequacy Index with fatal coronary events in an Italian middle aged male population followed for 40 years. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2012; 22: 369–75.Google Scholar
157Hoevenaar-Blom, MP, Nooyens, ACJ, Kromhout, Det al.Mediterranean style diet and 12-year incidence of cardiovascular diseases: The EPIC-NL cohort study. PLoS ONE 2012; 7: e45458.Google Scholar
158de Lorgeril, M, Salen, P, Martin, JL, Monjaud, I, Delaye, J, Mamelle, N. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation 1999; 99: 779–85.Google Scholar
159Estruch, R, Ros, E, Salas-Salvado, Jet al.Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 1279–90.Google Scholar
160Hu, FB. Dietary pattern analysis: a new direction in nutritional epidemiology. Curr Opin Lipidol 2002; 13: 3–9.Google Scholar
161Schulze, MB, Hu, FB. Dietary patterns and risk of hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronary heart disease. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2002; 4: 462–67.Google Scholar
162Hu, FB, Willett, WC. Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease. JAMA 2002; 288: 2569–78.Google Scholar
163Agnoli, C, Krogh, V, Grioni, Set al.A priori-defined dietary patterns are associated with reduced risk of stroke in a large Italian cohort. J Nutr 2011; 141: 1552–58.Google Scholar
164Fung, TT, Willett, WC, Stampfer, MJ, Manson, JE, Hu, FB. Dietary patterns and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 1857–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
165Stampfer, MJ, Hu, FB, Manson, JE, Rimm, EB, Willett, WC. Primary prevention of coronary heart disease in women through diet and lifestyle. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 16–22.Google Scholar
166Fung, TT, Stampfer, MJ, Manson, JE, Rexrode, KM, Willett, WC. Prospective study of major dietary patterns and stroke risk in women. Stroke 2004; 35: 2014–19.Google Scholar
167Heidemann, C, Schulze, MB, Franco, OH, van Dam, RM, Mantzoros, CS, Hu, FB. Dietary patterns and risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all causes in a prospective cohort of women. Circulation 2008; 118: 230–37.Google Scholar
168Stricker, MD, Onland-Moret, NC, Boer, JMet al.Dietary patterns derived from principal component- and k-means cluster analysis: long-term association with coronary heart disease and stroke. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2013; 23: 250–56.Google Scholar
169Johnson, MA. Strategies to improve diet in older adults. Proc Nutr Soc 2013; 72: 166–72.Google Scholar
170Gariballa, S, Sinclair, A. Ageing and older people. In Geissler, C, Powers, H (eds), pp. 319–34. Human Nutrition. London: Elsevier, 2005.Google Scholar