Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T20:50:47.236Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Historical Theory and Political Reform: Two Perspectives on Confederation Politics*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 August 2009

Michael Lienesch
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Among recent American historians, few topics have provoked more controversy than the character of the Confederation period. On one side, scholars like Forrest McDonald have contended that the era from the end of the revolutionary war to the creation of the federal constitution was a time of economic confusion and political chaos, a “critical period” in which popular protest became violent enough to threaten civil war. On the other side, critics of this view led by Merrill Jensen have argued that the period was in fact prosperous and relatively stable, that political protests were few and mostly well behaved, and that, in short, the “critical period” was really not very critical at all. This article does not enter into this debate. Instead, it works from the premise that events are often less important than the perception of events. That is, actual conditions aside, it considers how Americans of the day perceived these conditions. In particular, it describes how they viewed their politics through the filter of their understanding of history.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Review of Politics , Volume 45 , Issue 1 , January 1983 , pp. 94 - 115
Copyright
Copyright © University of Notre Dame 1983

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Compare McDonald, Forrest, E Pluribus Unum: The Formation of the American Republic, 1776–1790, 2nd ed. (Indianapolis, Ind., 1965)Google Scholar, with Jensen, Merrill, The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation, 1781–1789 (New York, 1950)Google Scholar. For background, see Morris, Richard B., “The Confederation Period and the American Historian,” The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 13 (04 1956), 139–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2 One notable exception is Colbourn, H. Trevor, The Lamp of Experience: Whig History and the Intellectual Origins of the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1965).Google Scholar

3 Pocock, J.G.A., Politics, Language and Time: Essays on Political Thought and History (New York, 1971), pp. 80–147Google Scholar; “Virtue and Commerce in the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 3 (Summer 1972), 119–134CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, N.J., 1975), esp. pp. 3–9Google Scholar.

4 See Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, pp. 462–552.

5 See Bailyn, Bernard, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), pp. 22–93Google Scholar. For background, see Robbins, Caroline, The Eighteenth-Century Commonwealthman (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), pp. 3–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fink, Z. S., The Classical Republicans, 2nd ed. (Evanston, Ill., 1962), pp. 1–27Google Scholar; and Colbourn, Lamp of Experience, pp. 3–20.

6 Warren, John, An Oration Delivered July 4th, 1783 … (Boston, Mass., [1783]), p. 6Google Scholar.

7 Joseph Buckminster, A.M. Jun., A Discourse Delivered in the First Church of Christ at Portsmouth … (Portsmouth, N.H., 1784), p. 31Google Scholar. On Adams, see Colbourn, Lamp of Experience, p. 77. See also Bailyn, Ideological Origins, pp. 99–143. Perhaps the best account of this Copernican concept of revolution is Arendt, Hannah, On Revolution (New York, 1963), pp. 34–40Google Scholar.

8 Buckminster, A Discourse, p. 31. See Persons, Stow, “The Cyclical Theory of History in Eighteenth Century America,” American Quarterly, 6 (Summer 1954), 147–163CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 See Wood, Gordon S., The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1969), pp. 127–244Google Scholar. Also helpful is Lutz, Donald S., Popular Consent and Popular Control: Whig Political Theory in the Early State Constitutions (Baton Rouge, La., 1980), pp. 53–84Google Scholar.

10 Hichborn, Benjamin, Esq., An Oration, Delivered July 5th, 1784 … (Boston, Mass., [1784]), p. 13Google Scholar.

11 See Elkins, Stanley and McKitrick, Eric, “The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution,” Political Science Quarterly, 76 (06 1961), 200–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 On popular protest in the revolution, see Wood, Gordon S., “A Note on Mobs in the American Revolution,” The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 23 (10 1966), 635–642CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Hichborn, Oration, p. 5; 6.

14 “Agrippa [James Winthrop],” letter to the Massachusetts Gazette, 14 January 1788, The Complete Anti-Federalist, ed. Storing, Herbert J. (Chicago, Ill., 1981), 4:95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Jefferson, to Carrington, Edward, 16 01 1787, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Boyd, Julian P. (Princeton, N.J., 1950-), 11:49Google Scholar.

16 Jefferson to Abigail Adams, 22 February 1787, ibid., 11:174.

17 Jefferson to James Madison, 30 January 1787, ibid. 93.

18 Jefferson to William Stephens Smith, 13 November 1787, ibid., 12:356.

19 On constitutional theory, see Bailyn, Ideological Origins, pp. 67–77.

20 See Adair, Douglass, “The Intellectual Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy: Republicanism, the Class Struggle, and the Virtuous Farmer” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1943), pp. 96–121Google Scholar.

21 See Gruman, Gerald J., “‘Balance’ and ‘Excess’ as Gibbon's Explanation of the Decline and Fall,” History and Theory, 1 (1961), 75–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 “Amicus Reipublicae [Benjamin Thurston],” An Address to the Public, Containing Some Remarks on the Present State of the American Republicks, &c. (Exeter, N.H., [1786]), pp. 13–14Google Scholar.

23 Moses Hemmenway, A.M., A Sermon Preached Before His Excellency John Hancock, Esq.; Governor … of … Massachusetts, May 26, 1784 … (Boston, Mass., 1784), p. 32Google Scholar.

24 “Amicus,” Address, p. 14.

25 On the relation between mixed government, separation of powers, and balanced government, see Gwyn, W. B., The Meaning of the Separation of Powers: An Analysis of the Doctrine from Its Origins to the Adoption of the United States Constitution (New Orleans, La., 1965)Google Scholar.

26 On the problem of applying constitutional theory to American politics, see Wood, Creation, pp. 430–67.

27 Adams, John, “A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States …,” 1787, The Works of John Adams, ed. Adams, Charles Francis (Boston, Mass, 1850–1856), 4:285Google Scholar.

28 Madison, James, “Vices of the Political System of the United States,” 04 1787, The Papers of James Madison, ed. Rutland, Robert A. (Chicago, Ill., 1962-), 9:353–354Google Scholar; 353.

29 Madison, , Federalist 62, The Federalist Papers, ed. Rossiter, Clinton (New York, 1961), pp. 379–380Google Scholar.

30 Madison, , “Vices,” Papers, 9:354Google Scholar.

31 See Elkins and McKitrick, “Founding Fathers,” p. 204.

32 Hamilton, , address to the federal convention, 18 06 1787, Debates on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution …, 2nd ed., ed. Elliot, Jonathan (Philadelphia, Pa., 1861–1863), 5:203Google Scholar.

33 “Amicus,“ Address, p. 17.

34 Ibid., pp. 18–19.

35 “Cassius [James Sullivan],” letter to the Massachusetts Gazette, 23 November 1787, Essays on the Constitution of the United States …, ed. Ford, Paul Leicester (New York, 1892), p. 18Google Scholar.

36 “Amicus,” Address, p. 16.

37 Dickinson, John, “letters of Fabius, no. IV,” 1788, The Political Writings of John Dickinson, Esquire … (Wilmington, Del., 1801), 2:107Google Scholar.

38 Hamilton, Federalist 9, Federalist Papers, p. 71.

39 “Amicus,” Address, p. 18; 28.

40 Adams, , “Defence,” Works, 4:287Google Scholar. See also David Humphreys; Joel Barlow; John Trumbull; and Hopkins, Lemuel, The Anarchiad: A New England Poem, ed. Riggs, Luther G. (New Haven, Conn., 1861), p. 61Google Scholar: “They see no object, and perceive no cause;/ But feel, by turns, in one disastrous hour,/ Th' extremes of license, and th' extremes of power.”

41 “Cassius [Aedanus Burke],” Considerations on the Society or Order of Cincinnati … (Charleston, S.C., 1783), p. 29Google Scholar. See also Jensen, The New Nation, pp. 54–84, 261–81.

42 Adams, Sam, letter to Lee, Richard Henry, 3 12 1787, Anti-Federalists versus Federalists: Selected Documents, ed. Lewis, John D. (San Francisco, Calif., 1967), p. 160Google Scholar.

43 Farmington [Connecticut] Revolutionary Records, 6 May 1783, cited in Main, Jackson Turner, The Antifederalists: Critics of the Constitution, 1781–1788 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1961), p. 109Google Scholar.

44 Belknap, Jeremy, An Election Sermon, Preached Before the General Court, of New-Hampshire … (Portsmouth, N.H., 1785), pp. 19Google Scholar; 20. On the fear of aristocracy, see Wood, Creation, pp. 75–90, 475–99. See also Ferguson, E. James, The Power of the Purse: A History of American Public Finance, 1776–1790 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1961), pp. 146–176Google Scholar.

45 Mason, George, address to the federal convention, 17 07 1787, The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, ed. Farrand, Max (New Haven, Conn., 1911–1937), 2:35Google Scholar. See also Wood, Creation, pp. 132–43, 430–38, 543–47.

46 See East, Robert A., “The Massachusetts Conservatives in the Critical Period,” The Era of the American Revolution, ed. Morris, Richard B. (New York, 1939), pp. 349–391Google Scholar.

17 See Main, The Antifederalists, pp. 59–71.

48 On the role of popular assemblies and political protest, see Rudolph, Lloyd I., “The Eighteenth Century Mob in America and Europe,” American Quarterly, 11 (Winter 1959), 447–469CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Maier, Pauline, “Popular Uprisings and Civil Authority in Eighteenth-Century America,” The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 27 (01 1970), 3–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Wood, “A Note on Mobs in the American Revolution,” pp. 635–42.

49 See Minot, George Richards, The History of the Insurrections, in Massachusetts … (Worcester, Mass., 1788), pp. 5–29, 89–91, 103–05, 110–12Google Scholar. The estimate of “a third part of the Commonwealth” is in Minot, History, p. 105.

50 Jefferson, to Carmichael, William, 26 12 1786, Papers, 10:633Google Scholar.

51 “A Fellow Citizen,” The Political Establishments of the United States … (Philadelphia, Pa., 1784), p. 3Google Scholar.

52 Ibid., pp. 5; 4; 5.

53 Ibid., p. 9. See Wood, Creation, pp. 543–47.

54 Samuel Haven, D. D., An Election Sermon, Preached Before the General Court, New-Hampshire … (Portsmouth, N.H., 1786), p. 12Google Scholar.

55 On Adams, see Wood, Creation, pp. 574–87.

56 Morris, Gouverneur, address to the federal convention, 2 07 1787, Records, 1:512Google Scholar.

57 Ibid., 7 August 1787, Records, 2:209.

58 Ibid., 6 July 1787, Records, 1:545.

59 Wilson, James, address to the federal convention, 15 08 1787, Records, 2:301Google Scholar.

60 “Fellow Citizen,” Political Establishments, p. 4.

61 Ibid., p. 9.

62 Franklin, , “Speech in the Convention, on the Subject of Salaries,” 2 06 1787, The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Smyth, Albert Henry (New York, 1905–1907), 9:593Google Scholar.

63 Dickinson, , address to the federal convention, 2 06 1787, Records, 1:87Google Scholar.

64 Hamilton, , address to the federal convention, 26 06 1787, Records, 1:432Google Scholar.

65 “Honorius,” “An Address to the Officers of the Connecticut Line,” The Vermont Gazette, 18 September 1783.

66 “Fellow Citizen,” Political Establishments, p. 3.

67 “Amicus,” Address, p. 20.

68 Adair, “Intellectual Origins,” p. 120.

69 Adams, Abigail to Jefferson, Thomas, 29 01 1787, The Adams-Jefferson Letters, ed. Cappon, Lester J. (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1959), 1:168Google Scholar.

70 “Cassius [Sullivan],” letter to the Massachusetts Gazette, 23 November 1787, Essays, p. 15. See East, “Massachusetts Conservatives,” p. 378.

71 See Jensen, The New Nation, pp. 46–53.

72 Jay, to Adams, John, 1 11 1786, The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay, ed. Johnston, Henry P. (New York, 1890–1893), 3:214Google Scholar.

73 Jay, to Washington, George, 27 06 1786, Correspondence, 3:205Google Scholar.

74 Rush, Benjamin to Price, Richard, 2 06 1787, The Letters of Benjamin Rush, ed. Butterfield, L. H. (Princeton, N.J., 1951), 1:418Google Scholar.

75 Clinton, , address to the New York ratifying convention, 28 06 1788, Debates, 2:359Google Scholar.

76 Jay, to Jefferson, , 27 10 1786, Correspondence, 3:213Google Scholar.

77 Hamilton, , address to the New York ratifying convention, 28 06 1788, Debates, 2:360Google Scholar.

78 Joseph Buckminster, A. M., A Sermon, Preached Before his Excellency the President … of the State of New-Hampshire, June 7, 1787 (Portsmouth, N.H., 1787), p. 27Google Scholar.