Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 August 2009
The role of elites within liberal democracy is a perennial issue. One reason why is an inappropriate theoretical conception of democracy. They are self-organizing systems rather than instrumental organizations. As such they have more in common systemically with science and the market than with democratic organizations or undemocratic states. Examining the role of elites within science and the market sheds light on how they work within democracies. Such an examination shows them to be both necessary and dangerous. Traditional “elitist” analyses of democracy suffer from confusions which the self-organizing model clears up. It also offers improvements on traditional “pluralist” conceptions.
1. Adams, John, The Political Writings of John Adams (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1954), p. 139.Google Scholar Adams was far from the only writer of the time who struggled with the problem of how this type of inequality could be harmonized with the principle of popular sovereignty. See also Taylor, John, An Inquiry into the Principles and Policy of the Government of the united States (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969), pp. 170, 47296Google Scholar; Adams's, response and the discussions of “A Federal Farmer” in Storing, Herbert, The Anti-Federalist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), pp. 75–79.Google Scholar
2. Adams, , Writings, p. 202.Google Scholar
3. Polsby, Nelson, Political Innovation in America New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4. Hayek, F. A., The Political Order of a Free People (Chicago: University of Chicago University Press, 1979)Google Scholar; Dobuzinskis, Laurent, The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987)Google Scholar.
5. Hayek, F. A., Rules and Order (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973) p. 38.Google Scholar
6. Kaufman, Herbert, The Forest Ranger (Washington, D. C.: Resources fo the Future, 1960), pp. 91–200.Google Scholar
7. Polanyi, Michael, The Logic of Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), p. 184.Google Scholar
8. Hayek, F. A., Individualism and Economic Order (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948).Google Scholar
9. Kirzner, Israel M., Competition and Entrepreneurship (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973).Google Scholar
10. Schumpeter, Joseph, The Theory of Economic Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961).Google Scholar
11. Lachmann, Ludwig, The Market as an Economic Process (Oxford: Basil Black-well, 1986).Google Scholar
12. Ziman, John, Public Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968).Google Scholar
13. Dizerega, Gus, “Citizenship and Participation: A Reformulation of Democratic Theory” (Ph.D. diss, University of California, Berkeley, 1984).Google Scholar
14. Hayek, , Rules and Order, p. 3.Google Scholar
15. Crick, Bernard, In Defense of Politics (Baltimore: Penguin, 1964), p. 22.Google Scholar
16. Ibid., pp. 23, 146, respectively.
17. Hayek, , Rules and Order, p. 43.Google Scholar
18. Tocqueville, Alexis De, Democracy in America, 2 vols. (New York: Schocken Books, 1961), 2: 89–90.Google Scholar
19. Dahl, Robert A., A Preface to Democratic Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956)Google Scholar; Pateman, Carole, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Mansbrdige, Jane, Beyond Adversary Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983).Google Scholar
19. Dahl, Robert A., A Preface to Democratic Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956)Google Scholar; Pateman, Carole, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Mansbrdige, Jane, Beyond Adversary Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983).Google Scholar
20. For example, Dye, Thomas R., Who's Running America? Institutional Leadership in the United States (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976), p. 5.Google Scholar
21. Michels, Robert, Political Parties (New York: Free Press, 1961), p. 365.Google Scholar
22. Sartori, Giovanni, The Theory of Democracy Revisited, 2 vols. (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1987), p. 149.Google Scholar
23. Lipset, Seymour Martin, Trow, Martin A., and Coleman, James S.Union Democracy (Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1965), p. 459.Google Scholar
24. Ibid., p. 464.
25. Ibid., p. 454.
26. Sartori, , Theory of Democracy Revisited, 1: 149.Google Scholar
27. Spretnak, Charlene and Capra, Frijof, Green Politics: The Global Picture (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1986).Google Scholar
28. Lipset, , Trow, and Coleman, , Union Democracy, p. 467.Google Scholar
29. Ibid., p. 347.
30. Heilbroner, Robert, “What Is Socialism?” Dissent (Winter 1978), p. 343.Google Scholar
31. Ibid., pp. 346–47. In fact the difference is not between morality and lack of morality, but between end-state morality where a specific result is moral or not, and procedural morality wherein morality is not found in the result, but in the means for getting there. A case for procedural morality exists when we cannot agree on specific outcomes because a situation is too complex to control, precisely the case with self-organizing social institutions. For an alternative to Heilbroner's view of bourgeois society and ethics, see Diamond, Martin, “Ethics and Politics: The American Way,” in The Moral Foundations of the American Republic, ed. Horowitz, Robert H., 3rd ed. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1986).Google Scholar
32. Although it is particularly appropriate to them. For an excellent case study of the incompatibility of central direction with democratic politics, see Steinmo, Sven, “Social Democracy vs. Socialism: Goal Adaptation in Social Democratic Sweden,” Politics and Society 16 (1988): 403–446CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Recently Heilbroner has apparently repudiated his views for he has admitted capitalism's victory over socialism. We may all be grateful that he or like-minded souls did not attain political power in 1978! See Heilbroner, Robert, “Reflections: The Triumph of Capitalism,” The New Yorker 23 01 1989, pp. 98–109.Google Scholar
33. Anonymous, The Suppressed Book About Slavery, Carleton, , reprinted (New York: Arno Press and New York Times, 1968), p. 21.Google Scholar
34. Dahl, Robert A., Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy (Berkeley: University of California, 1982), pp. 119–20.Google Scholar
35. For an extended critique of egalitarian theories of democracy, see Dizerega, Gus, “Equality, Self-Government and Democracy: A Critique of Robert Dahl's Conception of Political Equality,” Western Political Quarterly (1988): 447–68.Google Scholar
36. Toulmin, Stephen, Human Understanding (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), p. 168.Google Scholar
37. In science, democracy, and the market the underlying moral principles are based upon respect for others and the need to obtain their free agreement. Respect is a procedural moral principle quite different from Heilbroner's “endstate” conception of morality. On the distinction between procedural and end-state morality, see Nozick, Robert, Anarchy, State and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1978)Google Scholar.
38. Sartori, , Theory of Democracy Revisited, p. 93.Google Scholar
39. Deutsch, Karl, The Analysis of International Relations (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968), pp. 101–110.Google Scholar
40. Sartori, , Theory of Democracy Revisited, p. 99.Google Scholar
41. Derthick, Martha and Quirk, Paul, The Politics of Deregulation (Washington D. C: Brookings Institution, 1985), pp. 237–58Google Scholar; Polsby, Political Innovation; and Page, Benjamin I., Shapiro, Robert Y., and Dempsey, Glenn R., “What Moves Public Opinion?” APSR 81 (1987).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
42. Sartori, , Theory of Democracy Revisited, p. 99.Google Scholar
43. Buell, Emmett H., “Locals' and ‘Cosmopolitans’: National, Regional and State Newspaper Coverage of the New Hampshire Primary,” in Media and Momentum: The New Hampshire Primary and Nomination Politics, ed. Orren, Gary R. and Polsby, Nelson (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1987).Google Scholar
44. Huckfeldt, Robert and Sprague, John, “Networks in Context: Thee Social Flow of Political Information,” APSR 18 (1987): 1197–1216CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mills, C. Wright, Power, Politics and People: The Collected Essays of C. Wright Mills, ed. Horowitz, Irving Louis (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp. 577–98.Google Scholar
45. DiZerega, “Equality, Self-Government and Democracy.”
46. Polsby, Nelson, Community Power and Political Theory, 2nd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980), p. 154.Google Scholar
47. Domhoff, G. W., Who Rules America Now? A View from the 80s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), p. 42.Google Scholar
48. Ibid., p. 36.
49. Lebergott, Stanley, Wealth and Want (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 161–75.Google Scholar
50. For an example of his organizational thinking, see Domhoff, , Who Rules America Now?, p. 77.Google Scholar
51. Ibid., p. 60.
52. White, Shelby, “Cradle to Grave: Family Offices Manage Money for the Very Rich,” Barron's (20 03 1978), p. 9.Google Scholar
53. Domhoff, , Who Rules America Now?, p. 72.Google Scholar
54. Olson, Mancur, The Rise and Decline of Nations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982).Google Scholar
55. Much of this analysis rests on the work of Ziman, John: Public Knowledge (1968)Google Scholar; and Reliable Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978)Google Scholar.
56. Feyerabend, Paul, Against Method (New York: Schocken, 1975).Google Scholar
57. Polsby, Nelson, “Moving Towards Equality in Campaign Finance? Another Equivocal Encounter Between Theory and Practice,” Power, Inequality and Democratic Politics, ed. Shapiro, Ian and Reeher, Grant (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), pp. 268–69.Google Scholar
58. Walker, Jack L., “The Origin and Maintenance of Interest Groups in America,” APSR 77(1983): 390–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
59. Domhoff, , Who Rules America Now?, p. 104.Google Scholar
60. Steinmo, “Social Democracy vs. Socialism.”
61. Bachrach, Peter and Baratz, Morton, “Two Faces of Power,” APSR 56 (1962): 947–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62. For an extended discussion of this point, see Dizerega, Gus, “Democracy as a Spontaneous Order,” Critical Review (Winter 1989).Google Scholar
63. Domhoff, , Who Rules America Now?, p. 2.Google Scholar
64. Ibid., p. 161.
65. G. W., Domhoff, The Higher Circles (New York: Random House, 1970), p. 158.Google Scholar
66. Domhoff, , Who Rules America Now?, p. 84.Google Scholar
67. Ibid., p. 85.
68. Fox, Stephen, The American Conservation Movement: John Muir and His Legacy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), pp. 292–99.Google Scholar
69. Polsby, , Community Power and Political Theory, p. 154.Google Scholar
70. But see Hough, Jerry who uses Robert Dahl's definition of pluralism to argue that it exists within pre-Gorbachev USSR! The Soviet Union and Social Science Theory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970).Google Scholar
71. See diZerega, “Equality, Self-Government and Democracy.”
72. Lowi, Theodore, The End of Liberalism (NewYork: W. W. Norton, 1969)Google Scholar; Reisner, Marc, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (New York: Penguin, 1987).Google Scholar
73. DiZerega, “Citizenship and Participation.”