Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T05:30:52.695Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The role of riparian buffer management in reducing off-site impacts from grazed dairy systems

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 January 2012

Sharon R. Aarons  and
Cameron J. P. Gourley
Sharon R. Aarons*
Affiliation:
Future Farming Systems Research Division, Department of Primary Industries, Ellinbank Centre, 1301 Hazeldean Road, Ellinbank Victoria 3821, Australia.
Cameron J. P. Gourley
Affiliation:
Future Farming Systems Research Division, Department of Primary Industries, Ellinbank Centre, 1301 Hazeldean Road, Ellinbank Victoria 3821, Australia.
*
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Agriculture in general and intensive animal production in particular can degrade the environment, especially as a consequence of the overuse of nutrients. Intensively grazed dairy systems, defined by the presence of foraging animals in the landscape, are often considered a more benign approach to dairy production with perceived smaller impacts due to the reduced requirement for manure disposal. However, grazing dairy cows contribute nutrients and pathogens in excreta, and sediment through landscape deformation. These impacts can dramatically increase in parts of the farm such as feeding, watering and sacrifice areas, laneways and night paddocks where animals are concentrated and spend a disproportionate amount of time. Other practices such as the disposal of dairy shed or dairy factory effluent and cultivation of fodder crops can also pollute the environment. A common approach to reduce nutrient, pathogen and sediment losses from dairy farms is to establish buffer zones in riparian areas that act as an interface between upland land use and waterways. This is generally done by fencing riparian areas to exclude stock and revegetating with understory and overstory species, with the aim of increasing infiltration, trapping sediment and decreasing contaminant losses from upland pastures. However, poorly designed and managed riparian areas may themselves contribute to further environmental degradation. Rarely is an integrated approach, including factors such as animal behavior and dairy farm management practices, as well as an analysis of landscape and riparian hydrology used in developing riparian management recommendations for individual farms. This paper reviews the threats posed by intensively grazed dairy systems, approaches to improve riparian zone management and recommends future research needs.

Keywords

nutrientsphosphorusnitrogenfecal organismssedimentfilter stripswatershed
Type
Research Papers
Information
Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems , Volume 28 , Issue 1 , March 2013 , pp. 1 - 16
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1FAS. 2008. World dairy markets and trade. In Foreign Agricultural Service (ed.). Office of Global Analysis. FD 1-08 ed.United States Department of Agriculture.Google Scholar
2Gourley, C.J.P., Powell, J.M., Dougherty, W.J., and Weaver, D.M. 2007b. Nutrient budgeting as an approach to improving nutrient management on Australian dairy farms. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 47:1064–1074.Google Scholar
3Ledgard, S.F., Journeaux, P.R., Furness, H., Petch, R.A., and Wheeler, D.M. 2004. Use of nutrient budgeting and management options for increasing nutrient use efficiency and reducing environmental emissions fromNew Zealandfarms. In Proceedings of OECD Expert Meeting on Farm Management Indicators and the Environment, Palmerston North, New Zealand, March 8–12, 2004. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. p. 1–9.Google Scholar
4Powell, J.M., Russelle, M.P., and Martin, N.P. 2008. Dairy industry trends and the environment in theUSA. In Gerber, P. et al. (eds). Livestock in a Changing Landscape: Regional Insights. United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, Island Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
5VandeHaar, M.J. and St-Pierre, N. 2006. Major advances in nutrition: Relevance to the sustainability of the dairy industry. Journal of Dairy Science 89:1280–1291.Google Scholar
6Haygarth, P.M. and Sharpley, A.N. 2000. Terminology for phosphorus transfer. Journal of Environmental Quality 29:10–15.Google Scholar
7Ryden, J.C., Syers, J.K., and Harris, R.F. 1973. Phosphorus in runoff and streams. Advances in Agronomy 25:1–47.Google Scholar
8Powell, J.M., Gourley, C.J.P., Rotz, C.A., and Weaver, D.M. 2010. Nitrogen use efficiency: A measurable performance indicator for dairy farms. Environmental Science and Policy 13:217–228.Google Scholar
9Sodor, K.J. and Rotz, C.A. 2001. Economic and environmental impact of four levels of concentrate supplementation in grazing dairy herds. Journal of Dairy Scienc 84:2560–2572.Google Scholar
10White, S.L., Sheffield, R.E., Washburn, S.P., King, L.D., and Green, J.T.J. 2001. Spatial and time distribution of dairy cattle excreta in an intensive pasture system. Journal of Environmental Quality 30:2180–2187.Google Scholar
11Haumann, S. and Wattiaux, M. 1999. Overview of world livestock agriculture and selected dairy industries: Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, The Netherlands, and Wisconsin. In Babcock Institute discussion paper. The Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
12Holmes, C.W. 2007. The challenge for pasture-based dairying: learning from the unrecognised systems experts, good farmers. In Chapman, D.F. et al. (eds). Meeting the Challenges for Pasture-based Dairying. Proceedings of the Australasian Dairy Science Symposium, September 2007. National Dairy Alliance, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. p. 11–34.Google Scholar
13Hopkins, A. and Wilkins, R.J. 2006. Temperate grassland: Key developments in the last century and future perspectives. Journal of Agricultural Science (Cambridge) 144:503–523.Google Scholar
14Rotz, C.A., Taube, F., Russelle, M.P., Oenema, O., Sanderson, M.A., and Wachendorf, M. 2005. Whole-farm perspectives of nutrient flows in grassland agriculture. Crop Science 45:2139–2159.Google Scholar
15Agouridis, C.T., Workman, S.R., Warner, R.C., and Jenning, G.D. 2005. Livestock grazing management impacts on stream water quality: A review. Journal of the American Water Resource Association 41:591–606.Google Scholar
16Rawnsley, R.P., Donaghy, D.J., and Stevens, D.R. 2007. What is limiting production and consumption of perennial ryegrass in temperate dairy regions of Australia and New Zealand? In Chapman, D.F. et al. (eds). Meeting the Challenges for Pasture-based Dairying. Proceedings of the Australasian Dairy Science Symposium, September 2007. National Dairy Alliance, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. p. 256–274.Google Scholar
17Gourley, C. 2004. Improved nutrient management on commercial dairy farms in Australia. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology 59:152–156.Google Scholar
18Monaghan, R.M., Hedley, M.J., Di, H.J., McDowell, R.W., Cameron, K.C., and Ledgard, S.F. 2007. Nutrient management in New Zealand pastures—recent developments and future issues. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 50:181–201.Google Scholar
19Garcia, S.C. and Fulkerson, W.J. 2005. Opportunities for future Australian dairy systems: A review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 45:1041–1055.Google Scholar
20Wales, W.J., Heard, J.W., Ho, C.K.M., Leddin, C.M., Stockdale, C.R., Walker, G.P., and Doyle, P.T. 2006. Profitable feeding of dairy cows on irrigated dairy farms in northern Victoria. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46:743–752.Google Scholar
21Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE). 2006. Dairy production systems, productivity, profit and technology.Google Scholar
22Gourley, C.J.P., Aarons, S.R., Powell, J.M., Dougherty, W.J., and Weaver, D.M. 2007a. Revising the paradigm for improved nutrient management on Australian dairy farms. In Chapman, D.F. et al. (eds). Meeting the Challenges for Pasture-based Dairying. Proceedings of the Australasian Dairy Science Symposium, September 2007. National Dairy Alliance, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. p. 562–569.Google Scholar
23Craggs, R.J., Sukias, J.P., Tanner, C.T., and Davies-Colley, R.J. 2004. Advanced pond system for dairy-farm effluent treatment. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 47:449–460.Google Scholar
24Jacobs, J.L. and Ward, G.N. 2007. Effect of second pond dairy effluent applied in spring to silage regrowth of perennial ryegrass based pasture in southern Australia. 1. Dry matter yield and botanical composition changes. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 58:137–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25Hawke, R.M. and Summers, S.A. 2006. Effects of land application of farm dairy effluent on soil properties: A literature review. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 49:307–320.Google Scholar
26McDowell, R.W., Muirhead, R.W., and Monaghan, R.M. 2006. Nutrient, sediment, and bacterial losses in overland flow from pasture and cropping soils following cattle dung deposition. Communication in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 37:93–108.Google Scholar
27NRE. 2002. Heathy Rivers, Healthy Communities and Regional Growth—Victorian River Health Strategy. Department of Natural Resources and Environment.Google Scholar
28Gregory, S.V., Swanson, F.J., McKee, W.A., and Cummins, K.W. 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian zones, focus on links between land and water. Bioscience 41:540–551.Google Scholar
29Malanson, G.P. 1993. Riparian Landscapes. Press syndicate of the University of Cambridge, Cambridge.Google Scholar
30Naiman, R.J. and Décamps, H. 1997. The ecology of interfaces: Riparian zones. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28:621–658.Google Scholar
31Allan, J.D. 2004. Landscapes and riverscapes: The influence of land use on stream ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 35:257–284.Google Scholar
32Rutherfurd, I.D., Jerie, K., and Marsh, N. 2000. A rehabilitation manual for Australian streams. Volume 1 Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation (LWRRDC) and the Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology, Canberra.Google Scholar
33Cooper, A.B., Smith, C.M., and Smith, M.J. 1995. Effects of riparian set-aside on soil characteristics in an agricultural landscape: Implications for nutrient transport and retention. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 55:61–67.Google Scholar
34DPI. 2006. Productive Grazing, Healthy Rivers: Improving riparian and in-stream biodiversity, Project Report 2006. Department of Primary Industries, Melbourne, Victoria.Google Scholar
35Thompson, L., Robertson, A., Jansen, A., and Davies, P. 2003. Identifying best management practices for riparian habitats in Gippsland Dairy Regions: Riparian condition and relationships with farm management. Report No. 178. Charles Sturt University, Johnstone Centre, Wagga Wagga, NSW.Google Scholar
36Carpenter, S.R., Caraco, N.F., Correll, D.L., Howarth, R.W., Sharpley, A.N., and Smith, V.H. 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications 8:559–568.Google Scholar
37Hooda, P.S., Edwards, A.C., Anderson, H.A., and Miller, A. 2000. A review of water quality concerns in livestock farming areas. Science of the Total Environment 250:143–167.Google Scholar
38Trimble, S.W. and Mendel, A.C. 1995. The cow as a geomorphic agent—A critical review. Geomorphology 13:233–253.Google Scholar
39Drewry, J.J. 2006. Natural recovery of soil physical properties from treading damage of pastoral soils in New Zealand and Australia: A review. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 114:159–169.Google Scholar
40Greenwood, K.L. and McKenzie, B.M. 2001. Grazing effects on soil physical properties and the consequences for pastures: A review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 41:1231–1250.Google Scholar
41Haynes, R.J. and Williams, P.H. 1993. Nutrient cycling and soil fertility in the grazed pasture ecosystem. Advances in Agronomy 49:119–199.Google Scholar
42Børsting, C.F., Kristensen, T., Misciattelli, L., Hvelplund, T., and Weisbjerg, M.R. 2003. Reducing nitrogen surplus from dairy farms. Effects of feeding and management. Livestock Production Science 83:165–178.Google Scholar
43Dou, Z., Knowlton, K.F., Kohn, R.A., Wu, Z., Satter, L.D., Zhang, G., Toth, J.D., and Ferguson, J.D. 2002. Phosphorus characteristics of dairy feces affected by diets. Journal of Environmental Quality 31:2058–2065.Google Scholar
44Aarons, S. 2001. Cycling of organic phosphorus in grazed dairy systems—Final Report to DRDC. Agriculture Victoria, Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Ellinbank, Victoria.Google Scholar
45Kebreab, E., France, J., Beever, D.E., and Castillo, A.R. 2001. Nitrogen pollution by dairy cows and its mitigation by dietary manipulation. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 60:275–285.Google Scholar
46Aarons, S.R., O'Connor, C.R., and Gourley, C.J.P. 2004. Dung decomposition in temperate dairy pastures. I. Changes in soil chemical properties. Australian Journal of Soil Research 42:107–114.Google Scholar
47During, C. and Weeda, W.C. 1973. Some effects of cattle dung on soil properties, pasture production, and nutrient uptake I. Dung as a source of phosphorus. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 16:423–430.Google Scholar
48During, C., Weeda, W.C., and Dorofaeff, F. 1973. Some effects of cattle dung on soil properties, pasture production, and nutrient uptake II. Influence of dung and fertilizers on sulphate sorption, pH, cation-exchange capacity, and the potassium, magnesium, calcium, and nitrogen economy. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 16:431–438.Google Scholar
49Williams, P. and Haynes, R.J. 1995. Effect of sheep, deer and cattle dung on herbage production and soil nutrient content. Grass and Forage Science 50:263–271.Google Scholar
50Williams, P. and Haynes, R. 1994. Comparison of initial wetting pattern, nutrient concentrations in soil solution and the fate of 15N-labelled urine in sheep and cattle urine patch areas of pasture soil. Plant Soil 162:49–59.Google Scholar
51Dickinson, C.H., Underhay, S.H., and Ross, V. 1981. Effect of season, soil fauna and water content on the decomposition of cattle dung pats. New Phytologist 88:129–141.Google Scholar
52Aarons, S.R., O'Connor, C., Hosseini, H.M., and Gourley, C.J.P. 2009. Dung pads increase pasture production, soil nutrients and microbial biomass carbon in grazed dairy systems. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 84:81–92.Google Scholar
53Di, H.J. and Cameron, K.C. 2002. Nitrate leaching and pasture production from different nitrogen sources on a shallow stoney soil under flood-irrigated dairy pasture. Australian Journal of Soil Research 40:317–334.Google Scholar
54Eckard, R.J., White, R.E., Edis, R., Smith, A., and Chapman, D.F. 2004. Nitrate leaching from temperate perennial pastures grazed by dairy cows in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 55:911–920.Google Scholar
55Ledgard, S.F., De Klein, C.A.M., Crush, J.R., and Thorrold, B.S. 2000. Dairy farming, nitrogen losses and nitrate-sensitive areas. Proceeding of New Zealand Society of Animal Production 60:256–260.Google Scholar
56Silva, R.G., Cameron, K.C., Di, H.J., and Hendry, T. 1999. A lysimeter study of the impact of cow urine, dairy shed effluent, and nitrogen fertiliser on nitrate leaching. Australian Journal of Soil Research 37:357–370.Google Scholar
57Horvath, D.J. and Reid, R.L. 1984. Indirect effects of soil and water on animal health. Science of the Total Environment 34:143–156.Google Scholar
58Davies-Colley, R.J., Nagels, J.W., Smith, R.A., Young, R.G., and Phillips, C.J. 2004. Water quality impact of a dairy cow herd crossing a stream. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 38:569–576.Google Scholar
59Davies, C.M., Ferguson, C.M., Kaucner, C., Krogh, M., Altavilla, N., Deere, D.A., and Ashbolt, N.J. 2004. Dispersion and transport of Cryptosporidium oocysts from fecal pats under simulated rainfall events. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70:1151–1159.Google Scholar
60Muirhead, R.W., Collins, R.P., and Bremer, P.J. 2005. Erosion and subsequent transport state of Escherichia coli from cowpats. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71:2875–2879.Google Scholar
61McNeill, A. 1992. The ecological roles of riparian vegetation: The role of buffer stips in the management of waterway pollution: Aspects relating to pathogens and bacteria. In Woodfull, J. et al. (eds). Proceedings of The Role of Buffer Strips in the Management of Waterway Pollution from Diffuse Urban and Rural Sources. International House, University of Melbourne, October 9, 1992. Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation and Centre for Environmental Applied Hydrology, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. p. 83–91.Google Scholar
62Monaghan, R.M., Wilcock, R.J., Smith, L.C., Tikkisetty, B., Thorrold, B.S., and Costall, D. 2007. Linkages between land management activities and water quality in an intensively farmed catchment in southern New Zealand. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 118:211–222.Google Scholar
63Sanderson, M.A., Feldmann, C., Schmidt, J., Herrmann, A., and Taube, F. 2010. Spatial distribution of livestock concentration areas and soil nutrients in pastures. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 65:180–189.Google Scholar
64Aarons, S.R., Melland, A.R., and Gourley, C.J.P. 2004. Nutrient distribution within a dairy farm. In Singh, B. (ed.). Proceedings of Supersoil 2004: Program and abstracts for the 3rd Australian/New Zealand Soils Conference, University of Sydney, Australia, December 5–9, 2004. The Regional Institute, Gosford, NSW, Australia, p. 129.Google Scholar
65Barlow, K., Nash, D., Hannah, M., and Robertson, F. 2007. The effect of fertiliser and grazing on nitrogen export in surface runoff from rain-fed and irrigated pastures in south-eastern Australia. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 77:69–82.Google Scholar
66Dougherty, W.J., Fleming, N.K., Cox, J.W., and Chittleborough, D.J. 2004. Phosphorus transfer in surface runoff from intensive pasture systems at various scales: A review. Journal of Environmental Quality 33:1973–1988.Google Scholar
67McDowell, R.W., Nash, D.M., and Robertson, F. 2007. Sources of phosphorus lost from a grazed pasture receiving simulated rainfall. Journal of Environmental Quality 36:1281–1288.Google Scholar
68Jansen, A. and Robertson, A.I. 2001. Relationships between livestock management and the ecological condition of riparian habitats along an Australian floodplain river. Journal of Applied Ecology 38:63–75.Google Scholar
69Jansen, A. and Robertson, A.I. 2001. Riparian bird communities in relation to land management practices in floodplain woodlands of south-eastern Australia. Biological Conservation 100:173–185.Google Scholar
70Rengasamy, P. 2006. World salinization with emphasis on Australia. Journal of Experimental Botany 57:1017–1023.Google Scholar
71Smith, C.M. 1992. Riparian afforestation effects on water yields and water quality in pasture catchments. Journal of Environmental Quality 21:237–245.Google Scholar
72James, E., Kleinman, P., Veith, T., Stedman, R., and Sharpley, A. 2007. Phosphorus contributions from pastured dairy cattle to streams of the Cannonsville Watershed, New York. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 62:40–47.Google Scholar
73Decau, M.L., Simon, J.C., and Jacquet, A. 2003. Fate of urine nitrogen in three soils throughout a grazing season. Journal of Environmental Quality 32:1405–1413.Google Scholar
74Sharpley, A.N. 1995. Soil phosphorus dynamics: Agronomic and environmental impacts. Ecological Engineering 5:261–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
75Houlbrooke, D.J., Horne, D.J., Hedley, M.J., and Hanly, J.A., 2004. A review of literature on the land treatment of farm-dairy effluent in New Zealand and its impact on water quality. New Zealand. Journal of Agricultural Research 47:499–511.Google Scholar
76Heathwaite, A.L., Burke, S.P., and Bolton, L. 2006. Field drains as a route of rapid nutrient export from agricultural land receiving biosolids. Science of the Total Environment 365:33–46.Google Scholar
77Dabney, S.M., Moore, M.T., and Locke, M.A. 2006. Integrated management of in-field, edge-of-field, and after-field buffers. Journal of the American Water Resource Association 42:15–24.Google Scholar
78Dorioz, J.M., Wang, D., Poulenard, J., and Trévisan, D. 2006. The effect of grass buffer strips on phosphorus dynamics – A critical review and synthesis as a basis for application in agricultural landscapes in France. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 117:4–21.Google Scholar
79Wilcock, R., Monaghan, R., Thorrold, B., Meredith, A., Betteridge, K., and Duncan, M. 2007. Land–water interactions in five contrasting dairying catchments: Issues and solutions. Land Use and Water Resources Research 7:2.1–2.10.Google Scholar
80McDowell, R.W., Biggs, B.J.F., Sharpley, A.N., and Nguyen, L. 2004. Connecting phosphorus loss from agricultural landscapes to surface water quality. Chemistry and Ecology 20:1–40.Google Scholar
81Weaver, D.M. and Reed, A.E.G. 1998. Patterns of nutrient status and fertiliser practice on soils of the south coast of Western Australia. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 67:37–53.Google Scholar
82Hansen, N.C., Daniel, T.C., Sharpley, A.N., and Lemunyon, J.L. 2002. The fate and transport of phosphorus in agricultural systems. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 57:408–417.Google Scholar
83Barling, R.D. and Moore, I.D. 1994. Role of buffer strips in management of waterway pollution: A review. Environmental Management 18:543–558.Google Scholar
84Osborne, L.L. and Kovacic, D.A. 1993. Riparian vegetated buffer strips in water-quality restoration and stream management. Freshwater Biology 29:243–258.Google Scholar
85Line, D.E., Harman, W.A., Jennings, G.D., Thompson, E.J., and Osmond, D.L. 2000. Nonpoint-source pollutant load reductions associated with livestock exclusion. Journal of Environmental Quality 29:1882–1890.Google Scholar
86Aarons, S.R. 2011. Dairy farm impacts of fencing riparian land: An analysis of farmers’ perceptions of the costs and benefits. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 66:140A–147A.Google Scholar
87Collins, R., Donnison, A., Ross, C., and McLeod, M. 2004. Attenuation of effluent-derived faecal microbes in grass buffer strips. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research. 47:565–574.Google Scholar
88Dosskey, M.G., Helmers, M.J., Eisenhauer, D.E., Franti, T.G., and Hoagland, K.D. 2002. Assessment of concentrated flow through riparian buffers. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 57:336.Google Scholar
89Hickey, M.B.C. and Doran, B. 2004. A review of the efficiency of buffer strips for the maintenance and enhancement of riparian ecosystems. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada 39:311–317.Google Scholar
90Barrett, G. 2000. Birds on farms: Ecological management for agricultural sustainability. Supplement to Wingspan 10(4):IX–X.Google Scholar
91Price, P., Lovett, S., and Lovett, J. 2004. Managing Riparian Widths, Fact Sheet 13. Land & Water Australia, Canberra, Australia.Google Scholar
92Lovell, S.T. and Sullivan, W.C. 2006. Environmental benefits of conservation buffers in the United States: Evidence, promise, and open questions. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 112:249–260.Google Scholar
93Gilliam, J.W. 1994. Riparian wetlands and water quality. Journal of Environmental Quality 23:896–900.Google Scholar
94Lowrance, R., Altier, L.S., Newbold, J.D., Schnabel, R.R., Groffman, P.M., Denver, J.M., Correll, D.L., Gilliam, J.W., Robinson, J.L., Brinsfield, R.B., Staver, K.W., Lucas, W., and Todd, A.H. 1997. Water quality functions of riparian forest buffers in Chesapeake Bay watersheds. Environmental Management 21:687–712.Google Scholar
95Lyons, J.B., Gorres, J.H., and Amador, J.A. 1998. Spatial and temporal variability of phosphorus retention in a riparian forest soil. Journal of Environmental Quality 27:895–903.Google Scholar
96McKergow, L.A., Weaver, D.M., Prosser, I.P., Grayson, R.B., and Reed, A.E.G. 2003. Before and after riparian management: Sediment and nutrient exports from a small agricultural catchment, Western Australia. Journal of Hydrology 270:253–272.Google Scholar
97Peterjohn, W.T. and Correll, D.L. 1984. Nutrient dynamics in an agricultural watershed: Observations on the role of a riparian forest. Ecology 65:1466–1475.Google Scholar
98Vought, L.B.M., Pinay, G., Fuglsang, A., and Ruffinoni, C. 1995. Structure and function of buffer strips from a water quality perspective in agricultural landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planing 31:323–331.Google Scholar
99Quinn, J.M., Cooper, A.B., and Williamson, R.B. 1993. Riparian zones as buffer strips: A New Zealand perspective. In Bunn, S.E. et al. (ed.), Ecology and Management of Riparian Zones in Australia: Proceedings of a National workshop on research and management needs for riparian zones in Australia, held in association with the 32nd Annual Congress of the Society for Limnology, Marcoola, Sunshine Coast, Southeast Queensland. The Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation and the Centre for Catchment and In-stream Research, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia. p. 53–88.Google Scholar
100McIntyre, S. 2000. Ecological limits to pasture intensification. In Barlow, T. and Thorburn, R. (eds). Proceedings of Bushcare Grassy Landscapes Conference, Clare, SA. Environment Australia, p. 162–199.Google Scholar
101Gillingham, A.G. and Thorrold, B.S. 2000. A review of New Zealand research measuring phosphorus in runoff from pasture. Journal of Environmental Quality 29:88–96.Google Scholar
102McKergow, L.A., Prosser, I.P., Weaver, D.M., Grayson, R.B., and Reed, A.E.G. 2006. Performance of grass and eucalyptus riparian buffers in a pasture catchment, Western Australia, part 2: Water quality. Hydrological Processes 20:2327–2346.Google Scholar
103McKergow, L.A., Prosser, I.P., Weaver, D.M., Grayson, R.B., and Reed, A.E.G. 2006. Performance of grass and eucalyptus riparian buffers in a pasture catchment, Western Australia, part 1: Riparian hydrology. Hydrological Processes 20:2309–2326.Google Scholar
104Monaghan, R.M., Carey, P.L., Wilcock, R.J., Drewry, J.J., Houlbrooke, D.J., Quinn, J.M., and Thorrold, B.S. 2009. Linkages between land management activities and stream water quality in a border dyke-irrigated pastoral catchment. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 129:201–211.Google Scholar
105Hairsine, P. and Prosser, I. 1997. Reducing erosion and nutrient loss with perennial grasses. Australian Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 10:8–14.Google Scholar
106Smith, C.M. 1989. Riparian pasture retirement effects on sediment, phosphorus, and nitrogen in channellised surface run-off from pastures. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 23:139–146.Google Scholar
107Hairsine, P. 1996. Comparing grass filter strips and near-natural riparian forests for buffering intense hillslope sediment sources. In Rutherfurd, I. and Walker, M. (eds). Proceedings of First National Conference on Stream Management in Australia, Merrijig, Victoria, February 19–23. Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology, Clayton, Victoria, Australia. p. 203–206.Google Scholar
108Montgomery, D.R. 1997. What's best on banks? Nature 388:328–329.Google Scholar
109Dosskey, M.G., Hoagland, K.D., and Brandle, J.R. 2007. Change in filter strip performance over ten years. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 62:21.Google Scholar
110Anon. 1999. Managing the riparian zone within a total farm system. RipRap 12:1–4.Google Scholar
111Sheridan, J.M., Lowrance, R., and Bosch, D.D. 1999. Management effects on runoff and sediment transport in riparian forest buffers. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 42:55–64.Google Scholar
112RMS. 2009. Riparian management system model [Online]. Available from Iowa State University and the University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry at http://www.buffer.forestry.iastate.edu/HTML/buffer.html (verified December 1, 2011).Google Scholar
113Smethurst, P. 2004. Production forestry in riparian zones: Examples from Brazil, USA, Germany and Australia. Gottstein Fellowship Report.Google Scholar
114Smethurst, P. 2008. Summary of Australian codes of forest practice as they pertain to managing commercial plantations in stream-side buffers on cleared agricultural land. CRC Forestry Technical Report No. 178.Google Scholar
115Croke, J., Hairsine, P., and Fogarty, P. 1999a. Runoff generation and re-distribution in logged eucalyptus forests, south-eastern Australia. Journal of Hydrology 216:56–77.Google Scholar
116Croke, J., Wallbrink, P., Fogarty, P., Hairsine, P., Mockler, S., McCormack, B., and Brophy, J. 1999b. Managing sediment sources and movement in forests: The forest industry and water quality. Industry Report 99/11. Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology, Clayton, Victoria.Google Scholar
117Bren, L.J. 2000. A case study in the use of threshold measures of hydrologic loading in the design of stream buffer strips. Forest Ecology and Management 132:243–257.Google Scholar
118Sparovek, G., Lima Ranieria, S.B., Gassner, A., De Maria, I.C., Schnug, E., Ferreira dos Santos, R., and Joubert, A. 2002. A conceptual framework for the definition of the optimal width of riparian forests. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 90:169–175.Google Scholar
119Tomer, M., Dosskey, M., Burkart, M., James, D., Helmers, M., and Eisenhauer, D. 2009. Methods to prioritize placement of riparian buffers for improved water quality. Agroforestry System 75:17–25.Google Scholar
120Woltemade, C.J. 2000. Ability of restored wetlands to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in agricultural drainage water. Journal of Soil Water Conservation Third Quarter: 303–308.Google Scholar
121Harrison, J., Nennich, T., and White, R. 2007. Nutrient management and dairy cattle production. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 2:1–12.Google Scholar
122Aye, T.M., Nguyen, M.L., Bolan, N.S., and Hedley, M.J. 2006. Phosphorus in soils of riparian and non-riparian wetland and buffer strips in the Waikato area, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 49:348–358.Google Scholar