Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T20:46:50.694Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Impact of Radiocarbon Dating on Old World Archaeology: Past Achievements and Future Expectations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 July 2016

O Bar-Yosef*
Affiliation:
Peabody Museum, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA. Email: [email protected].
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Half a century since radiocarbon was first used in the archaeology of the Old World, it seems that the expectations of W F Libby may be becoming a reality. In 1952 (Libby 1952:97), he wrote:

Archaeologists, geologists and palynologists are continually searching for the means to improve methods of counting time. The … relative chronologies lack precision and direct correlation with the calendar, except when they may be checked with, … for example, the calendar based on tree-ring counts.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © 2000 The Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona 

References

Alley, RB, Meese, DA, Shuman, CA, Gow, AJ, Taylor, KC, Grootes, PM, White, JWC, Ram, M, Waddington, ED, Mayewski, PA. 1993. Abrupt increase in Greenland snow accumulation at the end of the Younger Dryas event. Nature 362:527–9.Google Scholar
Ambrose, SH. 1998a. Chronology of the Later Stone Age and food production in East Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:377–92.Google Scholar
Ambrose, SH. 1998b. Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans. Journal of Human Evolution 34(6): 623–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ammerman, AJ, Cavalli-Sforza, LL. 1984. The Neolithic transition and the genetics of populations in Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 176 p.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anthony, DW. 1990. Migration in archaeology: the baby and the bathwater. American Anthropologist 92(4): 895914.Google Scholar
Araus, JL, Febrero, A, Catala, M, Molist, M, Voltas, J, Romagosa, I. 1999. Crop water availability in early agriculture: evidence from carbon isotope discrimination of seeds from a tenth millennium BP site on the Euphrates. Global Change Biology 5:201–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O. 1992 The role of Western Asia in modern human origins. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B (London) 337:193200.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O. 1994. The contributions of southwest Asia to the study of the origin of modern humans. In: Nitecki, MH, Nitecki, DV, editors. Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans. New York: Plenum Press. p 2366.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O. 1998a The Chronology of the Middle Paleolithic of the Levant. In: Akazawa, T, Aoki, K, Bar-Yosef, O, editors. Neandertals and modern humans in western Asia. New York: Plenum Press. p 3956.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O. 1998b. The Natufian culture in the Levant—threshold to the origins of agriculture. Evolutionary Anthropology 6(5):159–77.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O. 1998c. On the nature of transitions: the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic Revolution. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 8(2):141–63.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O, Arnold, M, Belfer-Cohen, A, Goldberg, P, Housley, R, Laville, H, Meignen, L, Mercier, N, Vogel, JC, Vandermeersch, B. 1996. The dating of the Upper Paleolithic layers in Kebara Cave, Mount Carmel. Journal of Archaeological Science 23:297306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O, Belfer-Cohen, A. 1992. From foraging to farming in the Mediterranean Levant. In: Gebauer, A.B, Price, TD, editors. Transitions to agriculture in prehistory. Madison: Prehistory Press. p 2148.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O, Meadow, RH. 1995. The origins of Agriculture in the Near East. In Price, TD, Gebauer, AB, editors. Last hunters, first farmers: new perspectives on the prehistoric transition to agriculture. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. p 3994.Google Scholar
Barton, RNE, Currant, AP, Fernandez-Jalvo, Y, Finlayson, JC, Goldberg, P, Macphail, R, Pettitt, PB, Stringer, CB. 1999. Gibraltar Neanderthals and results of recent excavations in Gorham's, Vanguard and Ibex Caves. Antiquity 73 (279): 1323.Google Scholar
Baruch, U. 1994 The late Quaternary pollen record of the Near East. In: Bar-Yosef, O, Kra, RS, editors. Late Quaternary chronology and paleoclimates of the eastern Mediterranean. Tucson and Cambridge: Radiocarbon and the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. p 103–20.Google Scholar
Baruch, U, Bottema, S. 1991. Palynological evidence for climatic changes in the Levant ca. 17,000–9,000 B.P. In: Bar-Yosef, O, Valla, FR, editors. The Natufian culture in the Levant. Ann Arbor: International Monographs in Prehistory. p 1120.Google Scholar
Belfer-Cohen, A. 1991 The Natufian in the Levant. Annual Review of Anthropology 20:167–86.Google Scholar
Bentley, GR. 1996. How did prehistoric women bear “Man the Hunter”? Reconstructing fertility from the archaeological record. In Wright, RP, editor. Gender and archaeology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. p 2351.Google Scholar
Bentley, GR, Goldberg, T, Jasienska, G. 1993. The fertility of agricultural and non-agricultural traditional societies. Population Studies 47:269–81.Google Scholar
Bergman, CA, McEwen, E, Miller, R. 1988. Experimental archery: projectile velocities and comparison of bow performances. Antiquity 62(237):658–70.Google Scholar
Binford, SR. 1968. Early Upper Pleistocene adaptations in the Levant. American Anthropologist 70(4):707–17.Google Scholar
Bischoff, JL, Ludwig, K, Garcia, JF, Carbonell, E, Vaquero, M, Stafford, TW Jr, Jull, AJT 1994. Dating of the basal Aurignacian sandwich at Abric Romaní (Catalunya, Spain) by radiocarbon and Uranium-series. Journal of Archaeological Science 21(4):541–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bischoff, JL, Soler, M, Maroto, J, Julià, R. 1989. Abrupt Mousterian/Aurignacian boundary at c. 40 ka bp: Accelerator 14C dates from L'Arbreda Cave (Catalunya, Spain). Journal of Archaeological Science 16:563–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bottema, S. 1995. Holocene vegetation of the Van area: Palynological and chronological evidence from Sögütlü, Turkey. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 4:187–93.Google Scholar
Bourguignon, L. 1996 Un Mousterien tardif sur le site d'Umm el Tlel (Bassin d'El Khowm, Syrie)? Exemples des niveaux IIBase' et III2A'. In: Carbonell, E, Vaquero, M, editors. The last Neandertals, the first anatomically modern humans. Tarragona: Universitat Rovira i Virgili. p 317–36.Google Scholar
Braidwood, RJ. 1952. The Near East and the foundations for civilization. Eugene: Condon Lectures, Oregon State System of Higher Education.Google Scholar
Braidwood, RJ. 1973. The early village in Southwestern Asia. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 32(1–2):34–9.Google Scholar
Braidwood, RJ. 1975. Prehistoric men. 8th edition. Glen-view (Illinois): Scott, Freeman and Company.Google Scholar
Braidwood, RJ. 1983. The Hilly Flanks and beyond: essays on the prehistory of southwestern Asia presented to Robert J. Braidwood, November 15, 1982. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Cabrera, V, de Quirós, F Bernaldo. 1996. The origin of the Upper Palaeolithic: a Cantabrian perspective. In: Carbonell, E, Vaquero, M, editors. The last Neandertals, the first anatomically modern humans. Tarragona: Universitat Rovira i Virgili. p 251–65.Google Scholar
Carbonell, E, Vaquero, M, Maroto, J, Rando, JM, Mallol, C. A Geographic Perspective on the Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition in the Iberian Peninsula. In: Bar-Yosef, O, Pilbeam, D, editors. The geography of Neandertals and modern humans in Europe and the Greater Mediterranean. Cambridge: Peabody Museum Press. Forthcoming.Google Scholar
Çetin, O, Özer, AM, Wieser, A. 1994. ESR dating of tooth enamel from Karain excavation (Antalya, Turkey). Quaternary Geochronology (Quaternary Science Reviews) 13:661–9.Google Scholar
Clark, GA. 1997. The Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition in Europe: an American perspective. Norwegian Archaeological Review 30:2553.Google Scholar
Clottes, J. 1996a. Recent studies on Palaeolithic art. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 6(2): 179–89.Google Scholar
Clottes, J. 1996b. Thematic changes in Upper Palaeolithic art: a view from the Grotte Chauvet. Antiquity 70:276–88.Google Scholar
Clottes, J, Chauvet, J-M, Brunel-Deschamps, E, Hillaire, C, Daugas, J-P, Arnold, M, Cachier, H, Evin, J, Fortin, P, Oberlin, C. 1995. Les peintures paléolithiques de la Grotte Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc, à Vallon-Pont-d'Arc (Ardèche, France): datations directes et indirectes par la méthode du radiocarbone. Comptes-rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris 320(IIa): 1133–40.Google Scholar
Cohen, MN. 1977. The food crisis in prehistory: overpopulation and the origins of agriculture. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Conkey, MW, Soffer, O, Stratmann, D, Jablonski, NG, editors. 1997. Beyond art: Pleistocene image and symbol. San Francisco: California Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Courty, MA, Goldberg, P, Macphail, R. 1989. Soils and micromorphology in archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
D'Errico, F, Zilhão, J, Julien, M, Baffier, D, Pelegrin, J. 1998. Neanderthal acculturation in Western Europe? A critical review of the evidence and its interpretation. Current Anthropology 39 (Supplement):S1S44.Google Scholar
Damon, PE, Donahue, DJ, Gord, BH, Hatheway, AL, Jull, AJT, Linick, TW, Sercelo, PJ, Toolin, LJ, Bronk, CR, Hall, ET. 1989. Radiocarbon dating the shroud of Turin. Nature 337:611–5.Google Scholar
Deacon, T. 1997. The symbolic species: the co-evolution of language and the brain. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Dibble, HL. 1993. Le Paléolithique moyen récent du Zagros. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 90(4):307–12.Google Scholar
Dibble, HL, Holdaway, SJ. 1993. The Middle Paleolithic industries of Warwasi. In: Olszewski, DI, Dibble, HL, editors. The Paleolithic prehistory of the Zagros-Taurus. Philadelphia: The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. p 75100.Google Scholar
Donald, M. 1991. Origins of the modern mind. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Flannery, KV. 1973. The origins of agriculture. Annual Review of Anthropology 2:271310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gamble, C. 1986 The Palaeolithic settlement of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Garrod, DAE. 1955. The Mugharet el Emireh in lower Galilee: type station of the Emiran industry. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 85:141–62.Google Scholar
Gilman, A. 1984. Explaining the Upper Palaeolithic revolution. In: Springs, E, editor. Marxist perspectives in archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 115–26.Google Scholar
Goldberg, P, Bar-Yosef, O. 1998. Site formation processes in Kebara and Hayonim Caves and their significance in Levantine prehistoric caves. In: Akazawa, T, Aoki, K, Bar-Yosef, O, editors. Neandertals and modern humans in western Asia. New York: Plenum Press. p 107–25.Google Scholar
Golovanova, LV, Hoffecker, JF, Kharitonov, VM, Romanova, GP. 1999. Mezmaiskaya Cave: a Neanderthal occupation in the Northern Caucasus. Current Anthropology 40(1):7786.Google Scholar
Hajdas, I, Bonani, G, Bodén, P, Peteet, DM, Mann, DH. 1998. Cold reversal on Kodiak Island, Alaska, correlated with the European Younger Dryas by using variations of atmospheric 14C content. Geology 26(11): 1047–50.Google Scholar
Hajdas, I, Ivy-ochs, S, Bonani, G. 1995. Problems in the Extension of the Radiocarbon Calibration Curve (10–13 Kyr BP). Radiocarbon 37(1):75–9.Google Scholar
Harlan, JR. 1977. The origins of cereal agriculture in the Old World. In: Reed, CA, editor. Origins of agriculture. The Hague, Paris: Mouton Publishers. p 357–83.Google Scholar
Harlan, JR, Zohary, D. 1966. Distribution of wild wheat and barley. Science 153:1074–80.Google Scholar
Harris, D, editor. 1996a. The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia. London: UCL Press.Google Scholar
Harris, DR. 1996b. The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia: an overview. In: Harris, DR, editor. The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia. London: UCL Press. p 552–73.Google Scholar
Harris, DR. 1998a. The origins of agriculture in southwest Asia. The Review of Archaeology 19(2):512.Google Scholar
Harris, DR. 1998b. The spread of Neolithic agriculture from the Levant to western central Asia. In: Damania, AB, Valkoun, J, Willcox, G, Qualset, CO, editors. The origins of agriculture and crop domestication. Aleppo, Syria: ICARDA. p 6582.Google Scholar
Harris, DR, Hillman, GC, editors. 1989. Foraging and farming: the evolution of plant exploitation. London: Unwin Hyman.Google Scholar
Henry, DO. 1989. From foraging to agriculture: the Levant at the end of the Ice Age. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Heun, M, Schäfer-Pregl, R, Klawan, D, Castagna, R, Accerbi, M, Borghi, B, Salamini, F. 1997. Site of einkorn wheat domestication identified by DNA fingerprinting. Science 278:1312–4.Google Scholar
Hillman, G. 1996. Late Pleistocene changes in wild plant-foods available to hunter-gatherers of the Northern Fertile Crescent: possible preludes to cereal cultivation. In Harris, D, editor. The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia. London: UCL Press. p 159203.Google Scholar
Hillman, GC, Colledge, S, Harris, DR. 1989. Plant food economy during the Epi-Palaeolithic period at Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria: Dietary diversity, seasonality and modes of exploitation. In: Harris, DR, Hillman, GC, editors. Foraging and farming: the evolution of plant exploitation. London: Unwin Hyman. p 240–66.Google Scholar
Hole, F. 1998. The spread of agriculture to the eastern arc of the Fertile Crescent: food for the herders. In: Damania, AB, Valkoun, J, Willcox, G, Qualset, CO, editors. The origins of agriculture and crop domestication. Aleppo, Syria: ICARDA. p 8392.Google Scholar
Karkanas, P. 1999. Lithostratigraphy and micromorphology of Theopetra Cave deposits, Thessaly, Greece: some preliminary results. In: Bailey, G, Adam, E, Panagopoulou, E, Perlès, C, Zachos, K, editors. The palaeolithic archaeology of Greece and adjacent areas. Proceedings of the ICOPAG Conference, Ioannina. London: British School at Athens. p 240–51.Google Scholar
Kislev, M. 1997. Early agriculture and paleoecology of Netiv Hagdud. In: Bar-Yosef, O, Gopher, A, editors. An Early Neolithic village in the Jordan Valley Part I: the archaeology of Netiv Hagdud. Cambridge: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. p 209–36.Google Scholar
Kislev, ME, Nadel, D, Carmi, I. 1992. Epi-Palaeolithic (19,000 B.P) cereal and fruit diet at Ohalo II, Sea of Galilee, Israel. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 71:161–6.Google Scholar
Klein, RG. 1995. Anatomy, behavior, and modern human origins. Journal of World Prehistory 9(2):167–98.Google Scholar
Klein, RG. 1999. The human career: human biological and cultural origins. 2nd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Koumouzelis, M, Ginter, B, Kozlowski, JK, Kazior, B, Sobczyk, K, Kaczanowska, M, Pawlikowski, M, Bar-Yosef, O, Albert, RM, Litynska-Zajac, M, Stworzewicz, E, Wojtal, P, Lipecki, G, Tomek, T, Bochenski, ZM, Pazdur, A. Cave 1, Klisoura Gorge: the first Aurignacian sequence in Greece. Journal of Field Archaeology. Forthcoming.Google Scholar
Kozlowski, JK. 1998. The Middle and the Early Upper Paleolithic around the Black Sea. In: Akazawa, T, Aoki, K, Bar-Yosef, O, editors. Neandertals and modern humans in western Asia. New York: Plenum Press. p 461–82.Google Scholar
Kuhn, SL, Bietti, A. The Late Middle and Early Upper Paleolithic in Italy. In Bar-Yosef, O, Pilbeam, D, editors. The geography of Neandertals and modern humans in Europe and the greater Mediterranean. Cambridge: Peabody Museum Press. Forthcoming.Google Scholar
Kuhn, SL, Stiner, MC, Güleç, E. 1999. Initial Upper Palaeolithic in south-central Turkey and its regional context: a preliminary report. Antiquity 73(281):505–17.Google Scholar
Kyparissi-Apostolika, N. 1999. The Palaeolithic deposits of Theopetra Cave in Thessaly (Greece). In: Bailey, G, Adam, E, Panagopoulou, E, Perlès, C, Zachos, K. The Palaeolithic archaeology of Greece and adjacent areas. Proceedings of the ICOPAG Conference, Ioannina. London: British School at Athens. p 232–9.Google Scholar
Legge, T. 1996. The beginning of caprine domestication in Southwest Asia. In: Harris, D, editor. The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia. London: UCL Press. p 238–62.Google Scholar
Lemcke, G, Sturm, M. 1997. “∂18O and Trace element measurements as proxy for the reconstructions of climate changes at lake Van (Turkey): preliminary results. In: Dalfes, HN, Kukla, G, Weiss, H, editors. Third Millennium BC climate change and Old World collapse. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p 653–78.Google Scholar
Libby, WF. 1952. Radiocarbon dating. 1st edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Marino, BD, DeNiro, MJ. 1987. Isotopic analysis or archaeobotanicals to reconstruct past climates: effects of activities associated with food preparation on carbon, hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratios of plant cellulose. Journal of Archaeological Science 14:537–48.Google Scholar
Marino, BD, McElroy, MB. 1991. Isotopic composition of atmospheric CO2 inferred from carbon in C4 plant cellulose. Nature 349:127–31.Google Scholar
Marks, A, editor. 1983. Prehistory and paleoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel. Volume III. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press.Google Scholar
Marks, AE. 1993. The early Upper Paleolithic: the view from the Levant. In: Knecht, H, Pike-Tay, A, White, R. Before Lascaux: the complete record of the early Upper Paleolithic. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p 522.Google Scholar
Marks, AE, Chabai, VP, editors. 1998. The Middle Paleolithic of Western Crimea. Volume 1. Liège: ERAUL.Google Scholar
Marshack, A. 1972. The roots of civilization: the cognitive beginnings of man's first art, symbol, and notation. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Marshack, A. 1997. “Paleolithic image making and symboling in Europe and the Middle East: A comparative review,” In: Conkey, M, Soffer, O, Stratmann, D, Jablonski, NG, editors. Beyond art: Pleistocene image and symbol. San Francisco: Memoirs of California Academy of Sciences. p 5391.Google Scholar
Mayewski, PA, Meeker, LD, Whitlow, S, Twickler, MS, Morrison, MC, Alley, RB, Bloomfield, R, Taylor, K. 1993. The atmosphere during the Younger Dryas. Science 261:195–7.Google Scholar
Mayewski, PA, Twickler, MS, Whitlow, SI, Meeker, LD, Yang, Q, Thomas, J, Kreutz, K, Grootes, PM, Morse, DL, Steig, EJ. 1996. Climate change during the last deglaciation in Antarctica. Science 272:1636–8.Google Scholar
McBurney, CBM. 1967. The Haua Fteah (Cyrenaica) and the Stone Age of the south-east Mediterranean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Meadow, RH. 1998. Pre- and Proto-Historic Agricultural and Pastoral Transformations in Northwestern South Asia. The Review of Archaeology 19(2):1222.Google Scholar
Mellars, P. 1989. Technological changes at the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic transition: Economic, social and cognitive perspectives. In: Mellars, P, Stringer, C, editors. The human revolution: behavioural and biological perspectives on the origins of modern humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p 338–65.Google Scholar
Mellars, P. 1996a. The Neanderthal legacy: an archaeological perspective from Western Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mellars, P 1996b. Symbolism, language, and the Neanderthal mind. In: Mellars, P, Stringer, C, editors. Modelling the early human mind. Cambridge: McDonald Institute of Archaeological Research. p 1532.Google Scholar
Mellars, P, Otte, M, Straus, L, Zilhão, J, D'Errico, F. 1999. The Neanderthal problem continued. CA Forum on Theory in Anthropology. Current Anthropology 40(3): 341–64.Google Scholar
Mellars, P, Tixier, J. 1989. Radiocarbon accelerator dating of Ksar Aqil (Lebanon) and the chronology of the Upper Paleolithic sequence in the Middle East. Antiquity 63:761–8.Google Scholar
Miller, NF. 1992. The Origins of Plant Cultivation in the Near East. In: Cowan, CW, Watson, PJ, editors. The origins of agriculture: an international perspective. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. p 3958.Google Scholar
Miller, NF. 1997. The macrobotanical evidence for vegetation in the Near East, c. 18,000/16,000 BC to 4,000 BC. Paléorient 23(2):197208.Google Scholar
Mithen, S. 1996. The Prehistory of the mind: a search for the origins of art, religion, and science. London: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Moore, AMT, Hillman, GC. 1992. The Pleistocene to Holocene transition and human economy in southwest Asia: the impact of the Younger Dryas. American Antiquity 57(3):482–94.Google Scholar
Moore, AMT, Gowlett, JAJ, Hedges, REM, Hillman, GC, Legge, AJ, Rowley-Conwy, PA. 1986. Radiocarbon accelerator (AMS) dates for the Epipaleolithic settlement at Abu Hureyra, Syria. Radiocarbon 28(3): 1068–76.Google Scholar
Newcomer, MH. 1970. The chamfered pieces from Ksar Akil. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 8, 9:177–91.Google Scholar
Ohnuma, K. 1988. Ksar Akil, Lebanon: a technological study of the earlier Upper Palaeolithic levels at Ksar Akil. Volume III: Levels XXV–XIV. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar
Ohnuma, K, Bergman, CA. 1990. A technological analysis of the Upper Palaeolithic Levels (XXV–VI) of Ksar Akil, Lebanon. In: Mellars, P, editor. The emergence of modern humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p 91138.Google Scholar
Otte, M, editor. 1998. Préhistoire d'Anatolie: genèse de deux mondes. Anatolian prehistory: at the crossroads of two worlds. Volume II. Liège: ERAUL.Google Scholar
Otte, M, Yalçinkaya, I, Taskiran, H, Kozlowski, JK, Bar-Yosef, O, Noiret, P. 1995. The Anatolian Middle Paleolithic. Journal of Anthropological Research 51:287–99.Google Scholar
Pfeiffer, JE. 1982. The creative explosion: an inquiry into the origins of art and religion. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Quintana-Murci, L, Semino, O, Bandelt, H-J, Passerino, G, McElreavey, K, Santachiara-Benerecetti, AS. 1999. Genetic evidence of an early exit of Homo sapiens sapiens from Africa through eastern Africa. Nature Genetics 23(4): 437–41.Google Scholar
Raposo, L, Santonja, M. 1995. The earliest occupation of Europe: the Iberian peninsula. In: Roebroeks, W, Van Kolfschoten, T, editors. The earliest occupation of Europe. Leiden: University of Leiden. p 725.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C. 1973. Before civilization: the radiocarbon revolution and prehistoric Europe. London: Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C. 1987. Archaeology and language: the puzzle of Indo-European origins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rink, WJ, Lee, HK, Rees-Jones, J, Goodger, KA. 1998. Electron spin resonance (ESR) and mass spectrometric U-series (MSUS) dating of teeth in Crimean Paleolithic site: Starosele, Kabazi II, and Kabazi V. In: Marks, AE, Chabai, VP, editors. The middle Paleolithic of western Crimea. Volume 1. Liège: ERAUL. p 323–40.Google Scholar
Roberts, N, Wright, HE Jr. 1993. Vegetational, lake level, and climatic history of the Near East and southwest Asia. In: Wright, JE Jr. Kutzbach, JE, Web, T III, Ruddiman, F, Street-Perrott, FA, Bartlein, PJ, editors. Global changes since the last glacial maximum. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p 194220.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, M, Nesbitt, RM, Redding, RW, Strasser, TF 1995. Hallan Çemi Tepesi: some preliminary observations concerning early Neolithic subsistence behaviors in eastern Anatolia. Anatolica 21:112.Google Scholar
Rossignol-Strick, M. 1995. Sea-land correlation of pollen records in the eastern Mediterranean for the glacial-interglacial transition: biostratigraphy versus radiometric time-scale. Quaternary Science Reviews 14:893915.Google Scholar
Rossignol-Strick, M. 1997. Paléoclimat de la Méditerranée orientale et de l'Asie du Sud-Ouest de 15 000 à 6 000 BP Paléorient 23(2):175–86.Google Scholar
Sage, RF. 1995. Was low atmospheric CO2 during the Pleistocene a limiting factor for the origin of agriculture? Global Change Biology 1:93106.Google Scholar
Sherratt, A. 1997. Climatic cycles and behavioural revolutions: the emergence of modern humans and the beginning of farming. Antiquity 71:271–87.Google Scholar
Smith, AB. 1998. Keeping people on the periphery: the ideology of social hierarchies between hunters and herders. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 17(2):201–15.Google Scholar
Smith, FH, Trinkaus, E, Pettitt, PB, Karavanic, I, Paunovic, M. 1999. Direct radiocarbon dates for Vindija G1 and Velika Pecina Late Pleistocene hominid remains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96(22):12281–6.Google Scholar
Smith, PEL. 1986. Paleolithic archaeology in Iran. Philadelphia: The American Institute of Iranian Studies and the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Solecki, RS. 1963. Prehistory in Shanidar Valley, northern Iraq. Science 139:179–93.Google Scholar
Solecki, RS. 1964. Shanidar Cave, a Late Pleistocene site in northern Iraq. Report of the VIth International Congress on Quaternary, Warsaw, 1961. p 413–23.Google Scholar
Solecki, RS, Solecki, RL. 1993. The pointed tools from the Mousterian occupations of Shanidar Cave, Northern Iraq. In: Olszewski, DI, Dibble, HL, editors. The Paleolithic prehistory of the Zagros-Taurus. Philadelphia: The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. p 119–46.Google Scholar
Straus, LG. 1996. Continuity or rupture; convergence or invasion; adaptation or catastrophe; mosaic or monolith: views on the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in Iberia. In: Carbonell, E, Vaquero, M, editors. The last Neandertals, the first anatomically modern humans. Tarragona: Universitat Rovira i Virgili. p 203–18.Google Scholar
Straus, LG. 1997. The Iberian situation between 40,000 and 30,000 BP in light of European models of migration and convergence. In: Clark, GA, Willermet, CM, editors. Conceptual issues in modern humans origins research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. p 235–52.Google Scholar
Stringer, C, Gamble, C. 1993. In search of the Neanderthals. London: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M, Long, A, Kra, RS, editors. 1993. Calibration 1993. Radiocarbon 35(1):1244.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M, Reimer, PJ, Bard, E, Beck, JW, Burr, GS, Hughen, KA, Kromer, B, McCormac, G, Van der Plicht, J, Spurk, M. 1998. INTCAL98 radiocarbon age calibration, 24,000–0 cal BP. Radiocarbon 40(3):1041–84.Google Scholar
Svoboda, J, Simán, K. 1989. The middle-upper Paleolithic transition in southeastern central Europe (Czechoslovakia and Hungary). Journal of World Prehistory 3: 283322.Google Scholar
Taylor, RE 1997 Radiocarbon Dating. In: Taylor, RE, Ait-ken, MJ editors. Chronometric dating in archaeology. New York: Plenum Press. p 6596.Google Scholar
Uerpmann, HP. 1989. Problems of archaeo-zoological research in Eastern Arabia. Oman Studies LXIII:163–8.Google Scholar
Valladas, H, Joron, JL, Valladas, G, Arensburg, B, Bar-Yosef, O, Belfer-Cohen, A, Goldberg, P, Laville, H, Meignen, L, Rak, Y. 1987. Thermoluminescence dates for the Neanderthal burial site at Kebara in Israel. Nature 330:159–60.Google Scholar
Van Andel, TH. 1998. Middle and Upper Palaeolithic environments and the calibration of 14C dates beyond 10,000 BP. Antiquity 72(275):2633.Google Scholar
Van Andel, TH, Runnels, CN. 1995. The earliest farmers in Europe. Antiquity 69(264):481500.Google Scholar
Van der Plicht, J. 1999. Radiocarbon calibration for the Middle/Upper Palaeolithic: a comment. Antiquity 73(279):119123.Google Scholar
Van der Plicht, J, Van der Wijk, A, Bartstra, GJ. 1989. Uranium and thorium in fossil bones: activity ratios and dating. Applied Geochemistry 4:339–42.Google Scholar
Van Peer, P. 1998. The Nile Corridor and the Out-of-Africa model: an examination of the archaeological record. Current Anthropology 39: supplement, 1998 June. S115S140.Google Scholar
Van Zeist, W. 1986. Some aspects of Early Neolithic plant husbandry in the Near East. Anatolica 15:4967.Google Scholar
Van Zeist, W, Bakker-Herres, JAH. 1986. Archaeobotanical Studies in the Levant. III. Late Paleolithic Mureybet. Palaeohistoria 26:171–99.Google Scholar
Van Zeist, W, Bottema, S. 1991. Late Quaternary vegetation of the Near East. Weisbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag.Google Scholar
Volkman, P. 1983. Boker Tachtit: core reconstructions. In: Marks, AE, editor. Prehistory and paleoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press. p 127–90.Google Scholar
Wetterstrom, W. 1993. Foraging and farming in Egypt: the transition from hunting and gathering to horticulture in the Nile valley. In: Shaw, T, Sinclair, P, Andah, B, Okpoko, A, editors. The archaeology of Africa: food, metals and towns. London: Routledge. p 165226.Google Scholar
Wetterstrom, W. 1998. The origins of agriculture in Africa: with particular reference to sorghum and pearl millet. Review of Archaeology 19(2):3047.Google Scholar
White, R. 1989. Production complexity and standardization in early Aurignacian bead and pendant manufacture: evolutionary implications. In: Mellars, P, Stringer, C, editors. The human revolution: behavioural and biological perspectives on the origins of modern humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p 366–90.Google Scholar
White, R. 1997. Substantial acts: from materials to meaning in Upper Paleolithic representation. In: Conkey, MW, Soffer, O, Stratmann, D, Jablonski, HG, editors. Beyond art: Pleistocene image and symbol. San Francisco: Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences. p 93121 Google Scholar
Wright, HE Jr. 1993. Environmental determinism in Near Eastern prehistory. Current Anthropology 34(4):458–69.Google Scholar
Yakir, D, Issar, A, Gat, J, Adar, E, Trimborn, P, Lipp, J. 1994. 13C and 18O of wood from the Roman siege rampart in Masada, Israel (AD 70–73): evidence for a less arid climate for the region. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58(16):3535–9.Google Scholar
Yalçinkaya, I, Otte, M, Bar-Yosef, O. Kozlowski, J, Léotard, JM, Taskiran, H. 1993. The excavations at Karain Cave, south-western Turkey: an interim report. In: Olszewski, DI, Dibble, HL, editors. The Paleolithic prehistory of the Zagros-Taurus. Philadelphia: The University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. p 100–6.Google Scholar
Zilhão, J, D'Errico, F. 1999a. Reply in Mellars et al.: the Neanderthal problem, continued. CA Forum on Theory in Anthropology. Current Anthropology 40(3): 355–64.Google Scholar
Zilhão, J, D'Errico, F. 1999b. The chronology and taphonomy of the earliest Aurignacian and its implications for the understanding of Neanderthal extinction. Journal of World Prehistory 13(1):168.Google Scholar
Zohary, D. 1989. Domestication of the Southwest Asian Neolithic crop assemblage of cereals, pulses, and flax: the evidence from the living plants. In: Harris, DR, Hillman, GC, editors. Foraging and farming: the evolution of plant exploitation. London: Unwin Hyman. p 358–73.Google Scholar
Zohary, D, Hopf, M, editors. 1994. Domestication of plants in the old world. 2nd edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Zohary, M. 1973. Geobotanical foundations of the Middle East. Stuttgart: Springer Verlag.Google Scholar
Zubrow, E. 1989. The demographic modelling of Neanderthal extinction. In: Mellars, P, Stringer, C, editors. The human revolution: behavioural and biological perspectives in the origins of modern humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p 212–31.Google Scholar