Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T19:16:26.514Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Younger Dryas and the Sea of Ancient Ice

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Raymond S. Bradley  and
John H. England
Raymond S. Bradley*
Affiliation:
Department of Geosciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
John H. England
Affiliation:
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada T6G 2E3
*
*Corresponding author. Fax: +1 413 545 1200. E-mail addresses:[email protected] (R.S. Bradley), [email protected] (J.H. England).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We propose that prior to the Younger Dryas period, the Arctic Ocean supported extremely thick multi-year fast ice overlain by superimposed ice and firn. We re-introduce the historical term paleocrystic ice to describe this. The ice was independent of continental (glacier) ice and formed a massive floating body trapped within the almost closed Arctic Basin, when sea-level was lower during the last glacial maximum. As sea-level rose and the Barents Sea Shelf became deglaciated, the volume of warm Atlantic water entering the Arctic Ocean increased, as did the corresponding egress, driving the paleocrystic ice towards Fram Strait. New evidence shows that Bering Strait was resubmerged around the same time, providing further dynamical forcing of the ice as the Transpolar Drift became established. Additional freshwater entered the Arctic Basin from Siberia and North America, from proglacial lakes and meltwater derived from the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Collectively, these forces drove large volumes of thick paleocrystic ice and relatively fresh water from the Arctic Ocean into the Greenland Sea, shutting down deepwater formation and creating conditions conducive for extensive sea-ice to form and persist as far south as 60°N. We propose that the forcing responsible for the Younger Dryas cold episode was thus the result of extremely thick sea-ice being driven from the Arctic Ocean, dampening or shutting off the thermohaline circulation, as sea-level rose and Atlantic and Pacific waters entered the Arctic Basin. This hypothesis focuses attention on the potential role of Arctic sea-ice in causing the Younger Dryas episode, but does not preclude other factors that may also have played a role.

Keywords

Arctic OceanYounger DryasSea-iceThermohaline circulationPaleocrystic ice
Type
QR Forum
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 70 , Issue 1 , July 2008 , pp. 1 - 10
Copyright
University of Washington

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

1

Fax: +1 780 492 2030.

References

Aagaard, K., Carmack, E.C., (1989). The role of sea ice and other freshwater in the Arctic circulation.. Journal of Geophysical Research 94, 14485–14498.Google Scholar
Alcock, R., (1877). Address to the Royal Geographical Society.. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London 21, 407–477.Google Scholar
Andrews, J.T., Dunhill, G., (2004). Early to mid-Holocene Atlantic water influx and deglacial meltwater events, Beaufort Sea slope, Arctic Ocean.. Quaternary Research 61, 14–21.Google Scholar
Backman, J., Jakobsson, M., Løvlie, R., Polyak, L., Febo, L.A., (2004). Is the central Arctic Ocean a sediment starved basin?. Quaternary Science Reviews 23, 1435–1454.Google Scholar
Bauch, H.A., Mueller-Lupp, T., Taldenkova, E., Speilhagen, R.F., Kassens, H., Grootes, P.M., Thiede, J., Heinemeier, J., Petryashov, V.V., (2001). Chronology of the Holocene transgression at the North Siberian margin.. Global and Planetary Change 31, 125–139.Google Scholar
Bondevik, S., Mangerud, J., Birks, H.H., Gulliksen, S., Reimer, P., (2006). Changes in North Atlantic radiocarbon reservoir ages during the Allerød and Younger Dryas.. Science 312, 1514–1517.Google Scholar
Brigham-Grette, J., Gualtieri, L.M., Glushkova, O., Hamilton, T.D., Mostoller, D., Kotov, A., (2003). Chlorine-36 and 14C chronology support a limited Last Glacial Maximum across central Chukotka, Northeastern Siberia, and no Beringian Ice Sheet.. Quaternary Research 59, 386–398.Google Scholar
Broecker, W.S., (2006a). Was the Younger Dryas triggered by a flood?. Science 312, 1146–1148.Google Scholar
Broecker, W.S., (2006b). Abrupt climate change revisited.. Global and Planetary Change 54, 211–215.Google Scholar
Cao, L., Fairbanks, R.G., Mortlock, R.A., Risk, M.J., (2007). Radiocarbon reservoir age of high latitude North Atlantic surface water during the last deglacial.. Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 732–742.Google Scholar
Carlson, A.E., Clark, P.U., Haley, B.A., Klinkhammer, G.P., Simmons, K., Brook, E.J., Meissner, K.J., (2007). Geochemical proxies of North American freshwater routing during the Younger Dryas cold event.. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104, 6556–6561.Google Scholar
Crary, A.P., (1960). Arctic ice island and ice shelf studies. Part 1.. Arctic 11, 2–42.Google Scholar
Cuffey, K.M., Clow, G.D., (1997). Temperature, accumulation and ice sheet elevation in central Greenland through the last deglacial transition.. Journal of Geophysical Research 102C, 26383–26396.Google Scholar
Dahl-Jensen, D., Mosegaard, K., Gundestrup, N., Clow, G.D., Johnsen, S.J., Hansen, N., Balling, A.W., (1998). Past temperatures directly from the Greenland ice sheet.. Science 282, 268–271.Google Scholar
Darby, D.A., Bischoff, J.F., Jones, G.A., (1997). Radiocarbon chronology of depositional regimes in the western Arctic Ocean.. Deep-Sea Research Part II, 44, 1745–1757.Google Scholar
Darby, D.A., Polyak, L., Bauch, H.A., (2006). Past glacial and interglacial conditions in the Arctic Ocean and marginal seas — a review.. Progress in Oceanography 71, 129–144.Google Scholar
De Vernal, A., Hillaire-Marcel, C., (2006). Provincialism in trends and high frequency changes in the northwest North Atlantic during the Holocene.. Global and Planetary Change 54, 263–290.Google Scholar
De Vernal, A., Hillaire-Marcel, C., Bilodeau, G., (1996). Reduced meltwater outflow from the Laurentide ice margin during the Younger Dryas.. Nature 381, 774–777.Google Scholar
Dickson, R., Rudels, B., Dye, S., Karcher, M., Meincke, J., Yashayaev, I., (2007). Current estimates of freshwater flux through Arctic and Subarctic seas.. Progress in Oceanography 73, 210–230.Google Scholar
Duplessy, J.C., Labeyrie, L.D., and Paterne, M. (1996). North Atlantic sea surface conditions during the Younger Dryas cold event.. In: Andrews, J.T., Austin, W.E.N., Bergsten, H., Jennings, A.E. (Eds.), Late Quaternary Paleoceanography of the North Atlantic Margins. Geological Society Special Publication, vol. 111, pp. 167–176. The Geological Society, London.Google Scholar
Dyke, A.S. (2004). An outline of North American deglaciation with emphasis on central and northern Canada.. In: Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L. (Eds.), Quaternary glaciations-extent and chronology, part II. North America. Developments in Quaternary Science, vol. 2, pp. 373–424.Google Scholar
Dyke, A.S., Savelle, J.M., (2001). Holocene history of the Bering Sea Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) in the Beaufort Sea summer grounds off southwestern Victoria Island, western Canadian Arctic.. Quaternary Research 55, 371–379.Google Scholar
Dyke, A.S., Andrews, J.T., Clark, P.U., England, J.H., Miller, G.H., Shaw, J., Viellette, J.J., (2002). The Laurentide and Innuitian ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum.. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 9–31.Google Scholar
Elias, S.A., (2001). Beringian paleoecology: results from the 1997 workshop.. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 7–13.Google Scholar
Elias, S.A., Short, S.K., Nelson, C.H., Birks, H.H., (1996). Life and times of the Bering land bridge.. Nature 382, 60–63.Google Scholar
England, J.H., Furze, M.F., (in press). New evidence from the western Canadian Arctic Archipelago for the resubmergence of Bering Strait. Quaternary Research.Google Scholar
England, J.H., Atkinson, N., Bednarski, J.B., Dyke, A.S., Hodgson, D.A., Ó Cofaigh, C., (2006). The Innuitian Ice Sheet: configuration, dynamics and chronology.. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 689–703.Google Scholar
England, J.H., Furze, M., Doupé, J., (2007). New perspectives on the NW Laurentide Ice Sheet: implications for the NE extremity of Beringia, paleoclimate and the role of episodic ice shelves during deglaciation.. Abstracts, 37th International Arctic Workshop, Skaftafell, Iceland, pp. 96–97.Google Scholar
Gildor, H., Tziperman, E., (2003). Sea-ice switches and abrupt climate change.. Proceedings of the Royal Society London of Series A, vol. 361, pp.1935–1944.Google Scholar
Greely, A.W., (1886). Arctic exploration, with reference to Grinnell Land.. In: Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, New Monthly Series, vol. 8, pp. 156–176.Google Scholar
Grossvald, M.G., Hughes, T.J., (2002). The Russian component of an Arctic Ice Sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum.. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 121–146.Google Scholar
Hughen, K.A., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C.J.H., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Burr, G.S., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T.P., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., Manning, S., Ramsey, C.B., Reimer, P.J., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Plicht, J., Weyhenmeyer, C.E., (2004). Marine radiocarbon age calibration, 0–26 cal kyr BP.. Radiocarbon 46, 1059–1086.Google Scholar
Hughes, T., and Denton, G.H. (1981). The Arctic Ice Sheet: an outrageous hypothesis.. In: Denton, G.H., Hughes, T.J. (Eds.), The Last Great Ice Sheets. J. Wiley, Chichester.Google Scholar
Hughes, T., Denton, G., Grosswald, M., (1977). Was there a late-Würm Arctic Ice Sheet?. Nature 266, 596–602.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, I., James, T.S., Reimer, P.J., Bornhold, B.D., Clague, J.J., (2004). Marine and limnic radiocarbon reservoir corrections for studies of late- and postglacial environments in Georgia Basin and Puget Lowland, British Columbia, Canada and Washington, USA.. Quaternary Research 61, 193–203.Google Scholar
Jakobsson, M., (2002). Hypsometry and volume of the Arctic Ocean and its constituent seas.. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 3. 10.1029/2001GC000302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeffries, M.O., (1992). Arctic ice shelves and ice islands: origin, growth and disintegration, physical characteristics, structural stratigraphic variability, and dynamics.. Reviews of Geophysics 30, 245–267.Google Scholar
Kaplan, M.R., Miller, G.H., Steig, E.J., (2001). Low-gradient outlet glaciers (ice streams?) drained the Laurentide ice sheet.. Geology 29, 343–346.Google Scholar
Kaufman, D.S., et al., (2004). Holocene thermal maximum in the western Arctic (0–180°W).. Quaternary Science Reviews 23, 529–560.Google Scholar
Keigwin, L.D., Jones, G., (1995). The marine record of deglaciation from the continental margin off Nova Scotia.. Paleoceanography 10, 973–985.Google Scholar
Keigwin, L.D., Cook, M.S., (2007). A role for North Pacific salinity in stabilizing North Atlantic climate.. Paleoceanography 22, . 10.1029/2007PA001420.Google Scholar
Keigwin, L.D., Donelly, J.P., Cook, M.S., Driscoll, N.W., Brigham-Grette, J., (2006). Rapid sea-level rise and Holocene climate in the Chukchi Sea.. Geology 34, 861–864.Google Scholar
Knies, J., Vogt, C., Stein, R., (1999). Late Quaternary growth and decay of the Svalbard/Barents Sea ice sheet and paleoceanographic evolution in the adjacent Arctic Ocean.. Geological Marine Letters 18, 195–202.Google Scholar
Knies, J., Matthiessen, J., Mackensen, A., Stein, R., Vogt, R., Frederichs, T., Nam, S.-I., (2007). Effects of Arctic freshwater forcing on thermohaline circulation during the Pleistocene.. Geology 35, 1075–1078.Google Scholar
Knutti, R., Fluckiger, J., Stocker, T.F., Timmermann, A., (2004). Strong hemispheric coupling of glacial climate through freshwater discharge and ocean circulation.. Nature 430, 851–856.Google Scholar
Koç, N., Jansen, E., Haflidason, H., (1993). Paleoceanographic reconstructions of surface ocean conditions in the Greenland, Iceland and Norwegian seas through the last 14 ka based on diatoms.. Quaternary Science Reviews 12, 115–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koch, L., (1926). Ice cap and sea ice in North Greenland.. Geographical Review 16, 98–107.Google Scholar
Kovanen, D.J., Easterbrook, D.J., (2002). Paleodeviations of radiocarbon marine reservoir values for the northeast Pacific.. Geology 30, 243–246.Google Scholar
Lambeck, K., Chappell, J., (2001). Sea level change through the last glacial cycle.. Science 292, 679–686.Google Scholar
Landvik, J.Y., Bondevik, S., Elverhøi, A., Fjeldskaar, W., Mangerud, J., Salvigsen, O., Siegert, M.J., Svendsen, J.I., Vorren, T.O., (1998). The last glacial maximum of Svalbard and the Barents Sea Area: ice sheet extent and configuration.. Quaternary Science Reviews 17, 43–75.Google Scholar
LeGrande, A.N., Schmidt, G.A., Shindell, D.T., Field, C.V., Miller, R.L., Koch, D.M., Faluvegi, G., Hoffmann, G., (2006). Consistent simulations of multi-proxy responses to an abrupt climate change event.. Proceedings National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103, 837–842.Google Scholar
Lemmen, D.S., Evans, D.J.A., England, J., (1988). Ice shelves of northern Ellesmere Island, NWT.. The Canadian Geographer 32, 363–367.Google Scholar
Li, C., Battisti, D.S., Schrag, D.P., Tziperman, E., (2005). Abrupt climate shifts in Greenland due to displacements of the sea ice edge.. Geophysical Research Letters 32, L18702. 10.1029/2005GL023492.Google Scholar
Lowell, T., Waterson, N., Fisher, T., Loope, H., Glover, K., Comer, G., Hajdas, I., Denton, G., Schaefer, V., Rinterknecht, V., Broecker, W., Teller, J., (2005). Testing the Lake Agassiz meltwater trigger for the Younger Dryas.. EOS 86, 365, 372.Google Scholar
Lubinski, D.J., Polyak, L., Forman, S.L., (2001). Freshwater and Atlantic water inflows to the deep northern Barents and Kara Seas since ca. 13 14C ka: foraminifera and stable isotopes.. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1851–1879.Google Scholar
Mangerud, J., Gullikson, S., (1975). Apparent radiocarbon ages of recent marine shells from Norway, Spitsbergen, and Arctic Canada.. Quaternary Research 5, 263–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markham, A.H. (1878). The Great Frozen Sea.. Daldy, Isbister and Co., London. 440pp.Google Scholar
Maykut, G.A., (1986). The surface heat and mass balance.. In: Untersteiner, N. (Ed.), The Geophysics of Sea Ice. (NATO ASI B146). Plenum Press, New York., pp. 395–463.Google Scholar
Mercer, J.H., (1969). A former ice sheet in the Arctic Ocean.. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 8, 19–27.Google Scholar
Mercer, J.H., (1970). The Allerød Oscillation: a European climatic anomaly?. Arctic and Alpine Research 1, 227–234.Google Scholar
Mikkelson, E., (1907). Mr. Mikkelsen's ice-expedition in the Beaufort Sea.. Geographical Journal 30, 517–524.Google Scholar
Möller, P., Bolshiyanov, D.Y., Bergsten, H., (1999). Weichselian geology and palaeoenvironmental history of the central Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia, indicating no glaciation during the last global glacial maximum.. Boreas 28, 92–114.Google Scholar
Moore, T.C., (2005). The Younger Dryas: from whence the fresh water?. Paleoceanography 20, PA4021 10.1029/2005PA001170.Google Scholar
Moss, E.L., (1878). Shores of the Polar Sea; A Narrative of the Arctic Expedition of 1875–6.. Marcus Ward, London. 83pp.Google Scholar
Nares, G.S. (1878). Narrative of a voyage to the Polar Sea during 1875–6 in H.M. ships “Alert” and “Discovery”.. Sampson Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington, London. vol. 1, . 395pp.Google Scholar
Nørgaard-Pedersen, N., Spielhagen, R.F., Thiede, J., Kassens, H., (1998). Central Arctic surface ocean environment during the past 80,000 years.. Paleoceanography 13, 193–204.Google Scholar
Nørgaard-Pedersen, N., Spielhagen, R.F., Erlenkeuser, H., Grootes, P.M., Heinemeier, J., Knies, J., (2003). The Arctic Ocean during the Last Glacial Maximum: Atlantic and Polar domains of surface water mass distribution and ice cover.. Paleoceanography 18, 1063 10.1029/2002PA000781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nürnberg, D., Wollenburg, I., Dethleff, D., Eicken, H., Kassens, H., Letzig, T., Reimnitz, E., Thiede, J., (1994). Sediments in Arctic sea ice: implications for entrainment, transport and release.. Marine Geology 119, 185–214.Google Scholar
Phillips, R.L., Grantz, A., (1997). Quaternary history of sea ice and paleoclimate in the Amerasia basin, Arctic Ocean, as recorded in the cyclical strata of Northwind Ridge.. Geological Society of America Bulletin 109, 1101–1115.Google Scholar
Piotrowski, A.M., Goldstein, S.L., Hemming, S.R., Fairbanks, R., (2004). Intensification and variability of ocean thermohaline circulation through the last deglaciation.. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 225, 205–220.Google Scholar
Polyak, L., Curry, W.B., Darby, D.A., Bischof, J., Cronin, T.M., (2004). Contrasting glacial/interglacial regimes in the western Arctic Ocean as exemplified by a sedimentary record from the Mendeleev Ridge.. Palaeoecology 203, 73–94.Google Scholar
Poore, R.Z., Osterman, L., Curry, W.B., Phillips, R.L., (1999). Late Pleistocene and Holocene meltwater events in the western Arctic Ocean.. Geology 27, 759–762.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, S.O., Andersen, K.K., Svensson, A.M., Steffensen, J.P., Vinther, B.M., Clausen, H.B., Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L., Johnsen, S.J., Larsen, L.B., Dahl-Jensen, D., Bigler, M., Röthlisberger, R., Fischer, H., Goto-Azuma, K., Hansson, M.E., Ruth, U., (2006). A new Greenland ice core chronology for the last glacial termination.. Journal of geophysical research 111, D06102. 10.1029/2005JD006079.Google Scholar
Renssen, H., Isarin, R.F.B., (1998). Surface temperature in NW Europe during the Younger Dryas. AGCM simulation compared with temperature reconstructions.. Climate Dynamics 14, 33–44.Google Scholar
Renssen, H., Isarin, R.F.B., (2001). Data-model comparison of the Younger Dryas event: Discussion.. Canada Journal of Earth Science 38, 477–478.Google Scholar
Rothrock, D.A., Yu, Y., Maykut, G.A., (1999). Thinning of the Arctic sea ice cover.. Geophysical Research Letters 26, 3469–3472.Google Scholar
Siddall, M., Rohling, E.J., Almogi-Labin, A., Hembleton, Ch., Meischner, D., Schmelzer, I., Smeed, D.A., (2003). Sea-level fluctuations during the last glacial cycle.. Nature 423, 853–858.Google Scholar
Šlubowska-Woldengen, M., Rasmussen, T.L., Koç, N., Klitgaard-Kristensen, , Nilsen, F., Solheim, A., (2007). Advection of Atlantic water to the western and northern Svalbard shelf since 17,500 cal yr BP.. Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 463–478.Google Scholar
Spielhagen, R.F., Erlenkeuser, H., Siegert, C., (2005). History of freshwater runoff across the Laptev Sea (Arctic) during the last deglaciation.. Global and Planetary Change 48, 187–207.Google Scholar
Stanford, J.D., Rohling, E.J., Hunter, S.E., Roberts, A.P., Rasmussen, S.O., Bard, E., McManus, J., Fairbanks, R.G., (2006). Timing of meltwater pulse 1a and climate response to meltwater injections.. Paleoceanography 21, . 10.1029/2006PA001340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D., Darby, D.A., Hodgson, D.A., (2005). Late Pleistocene ice export into the Arctic Ocean from the M'Clure Strait Ice Stream, Canadian Arctic Archipelago.. Global and Planetary Change 49, 139–162.Google Scholar
Svendsen, J.I., Alexanderson, H., Astakhov, V.I., Demidov, I., Dowdeswell, J.A., Funder, S., Gataullin, V., Henriksen, M., Hjört, C., Houmark-Nielsen, M., Hubberten, H.W., Ingólfsson, Ó., Jakobsson, M., Kjær, K.H., Larsen, E., Lokrantz, H., Lunkka, J.P., Lyså, A., Mangerud, J., Matioushkov, A., Murray, A., Möller, P., Niessen, F., Nikolskaya, O., Polyak, L., Saarnisto, M., Siegert, C., Siegert, M.J., Spielhagen, R.F., Stein, R., (2004). Late Quaternary ice sheet history of northern Eurasia.. Quaternary Science Reviews 23, 1229–1271.Google Scholar
Taldenkova, E., Bauch, H.A., Stepanova, A., Strezh, A., Dem'yankov, S., Ovsepyan, Y., (in press). Postglacial to Holocene history of the Laptev Sea continental margin: paleoenvironmental implications of benthic assemblages. Quaternary International. Google Scholar
Tarasov, L., Peltier, W.R., (2005). Arctic freshwater forcing of the Younger Dryas.. Nature 435, 662–665.Google Scholar
Tarasov, L., Peltier, W.R., (2006). A calibrated deglacial drainage chronology for the North American continent: evidence of an Arctic trigger for the Younger Dryas.. Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 659–688.Google Scholar
Teller, J.T., Leverington, D.W., Mann, J.D., (2002). Freshwater outbursts to the oceans from glacial Lake Agassiz and their role in climate change during the last deglaciation.. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 879–887.Google Scholar
Teller, J.T., Boyd, M., Yang, Z., Kor, P.S.G., Fard, A.M., (2005). Alternative routing of Lake Agassiz overflow during the Younger Dryas: new dates, paleotopography, and a re-evaluation.. Quaternary Science Reviews 24, 1890–1905.Google Scholar
Vinje, T., Nordlund, N., Kvambekk, A.A., (1998). Monitoring ice thickness in Fram Strait.. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans C103, 10 10437–10449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogt, C., Knies, J., Spielhagen, R., Stein, R., (2001). Detailed mineralogical evidence for two nearly identical glacial/deglacial cycles and Atlantic water advection to the Arctic Ocean during the last 90,000 years.. Global and Planetary Change 31, 23–44.Google Scholar
Wadhams, P., Davis, N.R., (2000). Further evidence of ice thinning in the Arctic Ocean.. Geophysical Research Letters 24, 3973–3975.Google Scholar
Walker, E.R., Wadhams, P., (1979). Thick sea-ice floes.. Arctic 32, 140–147.Google Scholar
Warren, S.G., Rigor, I.G., Untersteiner, N., Radionov, V.F., Bryazgin, N.N., Aleksandrov, Y.I., Colony, R., (1999). Snow depth on Arctic sea ice.. Journal of Climate 12, 1814–1829.Google Scholar