Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T12:46:07.443Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A comparative study of woolly mammoths from the Gravettian site Kraków Spadzista (Poland), based on estimated shoulder heights, demography, and life conditions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 August 2018

Gary Haynes ,
Janis Klimowicz  and
Piotr Wojtal
Gary Haynes*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada 89507, USA
Janis Klimowicz
Affiliation:
(Retired) Desert Research Institute, Reno, Nevada, USA
Piotr Wojtal
Affiliation:
Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
*
*Corresponding author at: Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno, P.O. Box 14305, Reno, Nevada 89507, USA. E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Haynes).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article interprets the life conditions of woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius) from the Upper Paleolithic archaeological site Kraków Spadzista in Poland. We propose that the mammoths’ irregular mortality profile (also known as age profile) was shaped over several decades by major death events, which serially depleted the youngest cohorts. Taphonomic data and comparisons with other Eurasian archaeological and nonarchaeological sites provide context for hypothesizing that the mammoth-bone assemblage was accumulated at least partly through opportunistic human hunting of the most vulnerable animals in mixed herds. Humans exploited heightened mammoth vulnerability during climatic stress periods, killing and butchering most of the animals, although some mammoths in the assemblage may have died from natural causes. The evidence for environmental stress affecting the mammoths includes paleoecological data about local climatic conditions, the abundant signs of mammoth-bone abnormalities in the assemblage, the relatively smaller size of adult female mammoths compared with those from the similarly dated archaeological site Milovice I (Czech Republic), and the unusually high proportion of juvenile mammoths in the assemblage.

Keywords

Kraków SpadzistaMammoth shoulder heightsMammoth mortality profilesGravettian hunting
Type
Research Article
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 90 , Special Issue 3: Gravettian Hunters , November 2018 , pp. 483 - 502
Copyright
Copyright © University of Washington. Published by Cambridge University Press, 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Baigusheva, V.S., 1980. Mamont Mammuthus primigenius Blum. levoberezhya Severskogo Dontsa. In: Vereshchagin, N.K. (Ed.), Mlekopitayushchiye Vostochnoy Evropy v Antropogene Vol. 93. Trudy Zoologicheskogo Instituta, Leningrad, pp. 75–80.Google Scholar
Baryshnikov, G.F., Kuzmina, I.E., Hrabryi, V.M., 1977. Rezultati izmereniy trubchatikh kostei mamontov Berelëkhskogo “kladbishcha.” In: Skarlato, O.A. (Ed.), Mamontovaya Fauna Russkoy Ravnini i Vostochnoy Sibiri, Trudy Zoologicheskogo Instituta 72, 58–66.Google Scholar
Basilyan, A.E., Anisimov, M.A., Nikolskiy, P.A., Pitulko, V.V., 2011. Wooly [sic] mammoth mass accumulation next to the Paleolithic Yana RHS site, Arctic Siberia: its geology, age, and relation to past human activity. Journal of Archaeological Science 38, 2461–2474.Google Scholar
Beard, P.H., 1977. The End of the Game: The Last Word from Paradise. Rev. ed. Doubleday, Garden City, NJ.Google Scholar
Brugère, A., Fontana, L., 2009. Mammoth origin and exploitation patterns at Milovice (Area G excepted). In: Oliva, M. (Ed.), Milovice: Site of the Mammoth People below the Pavlov Hills. Anthropos: Studies in Anthropology, Palaeoethnology, Palaeontology and Quaternary Geology Vol. 27, (N.S. 19), Moravske Zemske Muzeum, Brno, Czech Republic, pp. 53–105.Google Scholar
Brugère, A., Fontana, L., Oliva, M., 2009. Mammoth procurement and exploitation at Milovice (Czech Republic). New data for the Moravian Gravettian. In: Fontana, L., Chauvière, F.-X., Bridault, A. (Eds.), In Search of Total Animal Exploitation. Case Studies from the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic. Proceedings of the XVth UISPP Congress, Session C61, vol. 42, Lisbon, 4–9 September 2006. BAR International Series 2040. BAR, Oxford, pp. 45–69.Google Scholar
Curtis, G.E. (Ed.), 1994. Poland: A Country Study. 3rd ed. Federal Research Division, U.S. Library of Congress, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Deraniyagala, P.E.P., 1955. Some Extinct Elephants, Their Relatives, and the Two Living Species. Ceylon National Museums, Colombo, Sri Lanka.Google Scholar
Diedrich, C.G., 2014. Late Pleistocene Eemian hyena and steppe lion feeding strategies on their largest prey – Palaeoloxodon antiquus Falconer and Cautley 1845 at the straight-tusked elephant graveyard and Neanderthal site Neumark-Nord Lake 1, central Germany. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 6, 271–291.Google Scholar
Drucker, D.G., Rivals, F., Münzel, S.C., Bocherens, H., 2016. Stable isotope and microwear investigation on the mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) of Kraków Spadzista: insights into diet and environment. In: Wojtal, P., Wilczyński, J., Haynes, G. (Eds.), A Gravettian Site in Southern Poland: Kraków Spadzista. Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland, pp. 189–202.Google Scholar
Dubrovo, I.A., 1982. Morfologiya skeleta Yuribeiskogo mamonta. In: Sokolov, V.E. (Ed.), Yuribeiskiy Mamont. Nauka, Moscow, pp. 53–99.Google Scholar
Fisher, D., Rountrey, A., Beld, S., Fox, D., Gohman, S., Tikhonov, A., Mol, D., Buigues, B., Lazarev, P., Boeskorov, G., 2010. Life history of the Yukagir mammoth. In: Lazarev, P., Boeskorov, G., Maschenko, E. (Eds.), Proceedings of the IV International Mammoth Conference [2007]. Institut Prukladnoy Ekologii Severa AN RS (Ya), Yakutsk, Russia, pp. 54–63.Google Scholar
Garutt, V.E., 1964. Das Mammut: Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach). A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt.Google Scholar
Guil-Guerrero, J.L., Tikhonov, A., Rodriguez-García, I., Protopopov, A., Grigoriev, S., Ramos-Bueno, R.P., 2014. The fat from frozen mammals reveals sources of essential fatty acids suitable for Palaeolithic and Neolithic humans. PLoS ONE 9, e84480.Google Scholar
Halámková, L., 2009. Osteometric analysis and mammoth hunting strategies. In: Oliva, M. (Ed.), Milovice: Site of the Mammoth People below the Pavlov Hills. Anthropos: Studies in Anthropology, Palaeoethnology, Palaeontology and Quaternary Geology Vol. 27, (N.S. 19), Moravske Zemske Muzeum, Brno, Czech Republic, pp. 108–117.Google Scholar
Harington, C.R., Mol, D., van der Plicht, J., 2012. The Muirkirk mammoth: a late Pleistocene woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) skeleton from southern Ontario, Canada. Quaternary International 255, 106–113.Google Scholar
Haynes, G., 1991. Mammoths, Mastodonts, and Elephants: Biology, Behavior, and the Fossil Record. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Haynes, G., 2017. Finding meaning in mammoth age profiles. Quaternary International 443, 65–78.Google Scholar
Haynes, G., Klimowicz, J., 2016. The meaning of the mammoth age profile from Kraków Spadzista Trench B+B1. In: Wojtal, P., Wilczyński, J., Haynes, G. (Eds.), A Gravettian Site in Southern Poland: Kraków Spadzista. Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland, pp. 159–187.Google Scholar
Hughes, P.D., Gibbard, P.L., 2015. A stratigraphical basis for the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Quaternary International 383, 174–185.Google Scholar
Kalicki, T., Kozłowski, J.K., Krzemińska, A., Sobczyk, K., Wojtal, P., 2007. The formation of mammoth bone accumulation at the Gravettian site Kraków-Spadzista B+B1. Folia Quaternaria 77, 5–30.Google Scholar
Kozłowski, J.K., Van Vliet, B., Sachse-Kozłowska, E., Kubiak, H., Zakrzewska, G., 1974. Upper paleolithic site with dwellings of mammoth bones – Cracow, Spadzista Street B. Folia Quaternaria 44, 1–110.Google Scholar
Krzemińska, A., 2008. Preliminary characteristics of pathologies found in the skeletons of mammoths at the Kraków Spadzista Street (B) site. Veterinarija ir zootechnika 43, 52–57.Google Scholar
Krzemińska, A., 2014. Abnormalities and Other Changes on Woolly Mammoth Bones from Central Europe 32,000 to 20,000 Years Ago – A Monograph. Faunistic Monographs 27. Instytut Systematyki i Ewolucji Zwierząt, Polska Akademia Nauk, Kraków, Poland.Google Scholar
Krzemińska, A., Wędzicha, S., 2015. Pathological changes on the ribs of woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius). Quaternary International 359–360, 186–194.Google Scholar
Krzemińska, A., Wojtal, P., 2014. Furrows on molars of woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius). In: Kostopoulas, D.S., Vlachos, E., Tsoukala, E. (Eds.), Abstract Book of the VIth International Conference on Mammoths and Their Relatives, 5–12 May, 2014. Scientific Annals of the School of Geology Special Vol. 102. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Sciences, Thessaloniki, Greece, p. 87.Google Scholar
Krzemińska, A., Wojtal, P., Oliva, M., 2015. Pathological changes on woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) bones: holes, hollows and other minor changes in the spinous processes of vertebrae. Quaternary International 359–360, 178–185.Google Scholar
Kubiak, H., Zakrzewska, G., 1974. Fossil mammals. In: Kozłowski, J.K., Kubiak, H., Sachse-Kozłowska, E., van Vliet, B., Zakrzewska, G. (Eds.), Upper Palaeolithic Site with Dwelling of Mammoth Bones – Cracow Spadzista Street (B). Folia Quaternaria 44, 1–110.Google Scholar
Kufel-Diakowska, B., Wilczyński, J., Wojtal, P., Sobczyk, K., 2016. Mammoth hunting – impact traces on backed implements from a mammoth bone accumulation at Kraków Spadzista (southern Poland). Journal of Archaeological Science 65, 122–133.Google Scholar
Łanczont, M., Madeyska, T., Mroczek, P., Hołub, B., Komar, M., Kusiak, J., Łącka, B., Żogała, B., Bogucki, A., 2013. Age and palaeoenvironmental history of loess cover in the area of the Kraków-Spadzista Street archaeological site (southern Poland). In: Wojtal, P. (Ed.), International Conference World of Gravettian Hunters, Abstracts and Guide Book. Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland, pp. 119–137.Google Scholar
Łanczont, M., Madeyska, T., Mroczek, P., Hołub, B., Żogała, B., Bogucki, A., 2015a. Relief and palaeorelief analyses of the Kraków Spadzista Palaeolithic sites’ complex as the tools used for explanation of the site location. Quaternary International 359–360, 89–95.Google Scholar
Łanczont, M., Madeyska, T., Mroczek, P., Komar, M., Łącka, B., Bogucki, A., Sobczyk, K., Wilczyński, J., 2015b. The loess-palaeosol sequence in the Upper Palaeolithic site at Kraków Spadzista – a palaeoenvironmental approach. Quaternary International 365, 98–113.Google Scholar
Łanczont, M., Mroczek, P., Madeyska, T., Komar, M., Holub, B., Żogała, B., Sobczyk, K., Wilczyński, J., 2016. Natural environment of the Gravettian settlement in the Kraków Spadzista site based on palaeogeographical interpretation of loess-palaeosol sequences. In: Wojtal, P., Wilczyński, J., Haynes, G. (Eds.), A Gravettian Site in Southern Poland: Kraków Spadzista. Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland, pp. 19–49.Google Scholar
Larramendi, A., 2016. Shoulder height, body mass, and shape of proboscideans. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 61, 537–574.Google Scholar
Laws, R.M., 1966. Age criteria for the African elephant, Loxodonta a. africana. East African Wildlife Journal 4, 1–37.Google Scholar
Laws, R.M., Parker, I.S.C., Johnstone, R.C.R., 1970. Elephants and habitats in North Bunyoro, Uganda. East African Wildlife Journal 8, 163–180.Google Scholar
Leshchinskiy, S.V., 2012. Paleoecological investigation of mammoth remains from the Kraków Spadzista Street (B) site. Quaternary International 276–277, 155–169.Google Scholar
Lipecki, G., Wojtal, P., 1996. Mammoth population from Cracow Spadzista Street (B) site. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia 39, 289–292.Google Scholar
Lister, A.M., 1999. Epiphyseal fusion and postcranial age determination in the woolly mammoth, Mammuthus primigenius (Blum.). Deinsea 6, 79–88.Google Scholar
Lister, A.M., Stuart, A.J., 2010. The West Runton mammoth (Mammuthus trogontherii) and its evolutionary significance. Quaternary International 228, 180–209.Google Scholar
Lozhkin, A.V., Anderson, P.M., 2016. About the age and habitat of the Kirgilyakh mammoth (Dima), Western Beringia. Quaternary Science Reviews 145, 104–116.Google Scholar
Lozhkin, A.V., Anderson, P.M., 2018. Another perspective on the age and origin of the Berelyokh mammoth sites (northeast Siberia). Quaternary Research 89, 459–477.Google Scholar
Martin, R., 1978. Aspects of elephant social organization. Rhodesia Science News 12, 184–187.Google Scholar
Maschenko, E.N., 2002. Individual development, biology and evolution of the woolly mammoth. Cranium 19, 4–120.Google Scholar
Maschenko, E.N., Gablina, S.S., Tesakov, A.S., Simakova, A.N., 2006. The Sevsk woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) site in Russia: taphonomic, biological and behavioral interpretations. Quaternary International 142–143, 147–165.Google Scholar
McKay, G.M., 1973. Behavior and Ecology of the Asiatic Elephant in Southeastern Ceylon. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 125, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Moss, C., 1988. Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family. W. Morrow, New York.Google Scholar
Musil, R., 2010. Palaeoenvironment at Gravettian sites in central Europe with emphasis on Moravia (Czech Republic). Quartär 57, 95–123.Google Scholar
Nikolskiy, P., Pitulko, V., 2013. Evidence from the Yana Palaeolithic site, Arctic Siberia, yields clues to the riddle of mammoth hunting. Journal of Archaeological Science 40, 4189–4197.Google Scholar
Nikolskiy, P.A., Basilyan, A.E., Sulerzhitsky, L.D., Pitulko, V.V., 2010. Prelude to the extinction: revision of the Achchagyi-Allaikha and Berelyokh mass accumulations of mammoth. Quaternary International 219, 16–25.Google Scholar
Niven, L.B., Wojtal, P., 2002. Cement furrows in the dentition of Mammuthus primigenius and the question of their etiology. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia 45, 307–319.Google Scholar
Nývltový Fišaková, M., 2009. Seasonality of the Milovice Gravettian site based on dental cement increments analysis. In: Oliva, M. (Ed.), Milovice: Site of the Mammoth People below the Pavlov Hills. Anthropos: Studies in Anthropology, Palaeoethnology, Palaeontology and Quaternary Geology Vol. 27, (N.S. 19), Moravske Zemske Muzeum, Brno, Czech Republic, pp. 129–130.Google Scholar
Oliva, M., 1988. Discovery of a Gravettian mammoth bone hut at Milovice (Moravia, Czechoslovakia). Journal of Human Evolution 17, 787–790.Google Scholar
Oliva, M. (Ed.), 2009). Milovice: Site of the Mammoth People below the Pavlov Hills. The Question of Mammoth Bone Structures. Anthropos: Studies in Anthropology, Palaeoethnology, Palaeontology and Quaternary Geology, Vol. 27 (N.S. 19). Moravské Zemské Muzeum, Brno, Czech Republic.Google Scholar
Osborn, H.F., 1907. A mounted mammoth skeleton of the Columbian mammoth (Elephas columbi). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 23, 255–257.Google Scholar
Péan, S., 2001. Mammoth and subsistence practices during the Mid Upper Palaeolithic of central Europe (Moravia, Czech Republic). In: Cavarretta, G., Gioia, P., Mussi, M., Palombo, M.-R. (Eds.), Le terra degli elefanti – the World of Elephants: Proceedings of the 1st International Congress, Rome, 16–20 October, 2001. Consiglio Nazionale della Ricerche, Rome, pp. 331–336.Google Scholar
Péan, S., Patou-Mathis, M., 2003. Taphonomy of mammoth sites. In: Reumer, J.W.S., de Vos, J., Mol, D. (Eds.), Advances in Mammoth Research: Proceedings of the Second International Mammoth Conference, Rotterdam, 16–20 May, 1999. Deinsea 9, 331–345.Google Scholar
Péan, S., Wojtal, P., 2003. Gravettian subsistence patterns related to Pleniglacial paleoenvironments in southern Poland. In: Patou-Mathis, M., Bocherens, H. (Eds.), Le rôle de l’environement dans les comportements des chasseurs-cueilleurs prehistoriques. Actes du XIVe Congrès de l’UISPP, Liège (Belgique), 2–8 septembre 2001. BAR International Series 1105. BAR, Oxford, pp. 23–37.Google Scholar
Pitulko, V.V., Basilyan, A.E., Pavlova, E.Y., 2014. The Berelekh mammoth “graveyard”: new chronological and stratigraphical data from the 2009 field season. Geoarchaeology 29, 277–299.Google Scholar
Pryor, A.J.E., O’Connell, T.C., Wojtal, P., Krzemińska, A., Stevens, R.E., 2013. Investigating climate at the Upper Palaeolithic site of Kraków Spadzista Street (B), Poland, using oxygen isotopes. Quaternary International 294, 108–119.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, S.O., Bigler, M., Blockley, S., Blunier, T., Buchardt, S.L., Clausen, H.B., Cvijanovic, I., et al., 2014. A stratigraphic framework for abrupt climatic changes during the Last Glacial period based on three synchronized Greenland ice-core records: refining and extending the INTIMATE event stratigraphy. Quaternary Science Reviews 106, 14–28.Google Scholar
Rountrey, A.N., Fisher, D.C., Tikhonov, A.N., Kosintsev, P.A., Lazarev, P.A., Boeskorov, G., Buigues, B., 2012. Early tooth development, gestation, and season of birth in mammoths. Quaternary International 255, 196–205.Google Scholar
Salnicki, J., Teichmann, M., Wilson, V.J., Murindagomo, F., 2001. Spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta prey on new-born elephant calves in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Koedoe 44, 79–83.Google Scholar
Saunders, J.J., 1977. Lehner Ranch revisited. In: Johnson, E. (Ed.), Paleoindian Lifeways. Museum Journal 17. West Texas Museum Association, Lubbock, TX, pp. 48–64.Google Scholar
Shilo, N.A., Lozhkin, A.V., Titov, E.E., Shumilov, Y.V., 1983. Kirgilyakhskiy Mamont: Paleogeograficheskiy Aspekt. Nauka, Moscow.Google Scholar
Shpansky, A.V., 2006. Quaternary mammal remains from the Krasniy Yar locality (Tomsk region, Russia). Quaternary International 142–143, 203–207.Google Scholar
Shpansky, A.V., Pecherskaya, K.O., 2007. Vozrastnaya struktura mamontov, Mammuthus primigenius (Blum.), iz mestonakhozhdeniya Krasniy Yar (Krivosheinskiy raion, Tomskaya oblast). In, Sovremennaya paleontologiya: Klassicheskie i noveyshie metodi – 2007. PIN RAN, Moscow, pp. 81–100.Google Scholar
Shrader, A.M., Ferreira, S.M., McElveen, M.E., Lee, P.C., Moss, C.J., van Aarde, R.J., 2006. Growth and age determination of African savanna elephants. Journal of Zoology (London) 270, 40–48.Google Scholar
Sobczyk, K., 2012. Raport z badan na stanowisku Kraków-Spadzista. Dokumentacja grantu MNiSW691/N-Ukraina/2010/0. Archiwum Zakładu Geoekologii i Paleogeografii UMCS, Lublin, Poland.Google Scholar
Sokolov, V.E. (Ed.), 1982. Yuribeyskiy Mamont. Nauka, Moscow.Google Scholar
Stansfield, F.J., 2015. A novel objective method of estimating the age of mandibles from African elephants (Loxodonta africana africana). PLoS ONE 10, e0124980.Google Scholar
Stiner, M.C., 1990. The use of mortality profiles in archaeological studies of hominid predatory adaptations. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 9, 305–351.Google Scholar
Stuart, A.J., Lister, A.M., 2014. New radiocarbon evidence on the extirpation of the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta (Erxl.)) in northern Eurasia. Quaternary Science Reviews 96, 108–116.Google Scholar
Svoboda, J., Péan, S., Wojtal, P., 2005. Mammoth bone deposits and subsistence practices during Mid-Upper Palaeolithic in central Europe: three cases from Moravia and Poland. Quaternary International 126–128, 209–221.Google Scholar
Ukkonen, P., Aaris-Sørensen, K., Arppe, L., Clark, P.U., Daugnora, L., Lister, A., Lõugas, L., et al., 2011. Woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius Blum.) and its environment in northern Europe during the last glaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews 30, 693–712.Google Scholar
Ukraintseva, V.V., 2013. Mammoths and the Environment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Van Valkenburgh, B., Hayward, M.W., Ripple, W.J., Meloro, C., Roth, V.L., 2016. The impact of large terrestrial carnivores on Pleistocene ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 113, 862–867.Google Scholar
Vereshchagin, N.K., 1977. Berelëkhskoe “kladbishche” mamontov. In: Skarlato, A.A. (Ed.), Mamontovaya Fauna Russkoy Ravnini i Vostochnoy Sibiri Vol. 72. Trudy Zoologicheskogo Instituta, Leningrad, pp. 5–50.Google Scholar
von den Driesch, A., 1976. A Guide to the Measurement of Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites: As Developed by the Institut für Palaeoanatomie, Domestikationsforschung und Geschichte der Tiermedizin of the University of Munich. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Wilczyński, J., Wojtal, P., Sobczyk, K., 2012. Spatial organization of the Gravettian mammoth hunters’ site at Kraków Spadzista (southern Poland). Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 3627–3642.Google Scholar
Wojtal, P., 2001. The woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) remains from the Upper Palaeolithic site Kraków Spadzista Street (B). In: Cavarretta, G., Gioia, P., Mussi, M., Palombo, M.R. (Eds.), Le terra degli elefanti – the World of Elephants: Proceedings of the 1st International Congress, Rome, 16–20 October, 2001. Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Rome, pp. 367–372.Google Scholar
Wojtal, P., 2007. Zooarchaeological Studies of the Late Pleistocene Sites in Poland. Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland.Google Scholar
Wojtal, P., Sobczyk, K., 2003. Taphonomy of the Gravettian site Kraków Spadzista Street (B). In: Reumer, J.W.F., De Vos, J., Mol, D. (Eds.), Advances in Mammoth Research (Proceedings of the Second International Mammoth Conference), Rotterdam. Deinsea 9, 557–561.Google Scholar
Wojtal, P., Sobczyk, K., 2005. Man and woolly mammoth at the Kraków Spadzista Street (B) – taphonomy of the site. Journal of Archaeological Science 32, 193–206.Google Scholar
Wojtal., P., Sobczyk, K., Wilczyński, J., 2015. A new look at an old site: studies of the Kraków Spadzista site 1968–2013. In: Sazelova, S., Novak, M., Mizerova, A. (Eds.), Forgotten Times and Spaces: New Perspectives in Paleoanthropological, Paleoetnological [sic] and Archeological Studies. Institute of Archeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic, pp. 169–190.Google Scholar
Wojtal, P., Wilczyński, J., 2015. Hunters of the giants: woolly mammoth hunting during the Gravettian in Central Europe. Quaternary International 379, 71–81.Google Scholar
Zherekova, I.E., 1977. Opisanie I izmereniya zubov mammontov Berelekha. In: Skarlato, A.A. (Ed.), Mamontovaya Fauna Russkoy Ravnini i Vostochnoy Sibiri Vol. 72. Trudy Zoologicheskogo Instituta, Leningrad, pp. 50–58.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Haynes et al. supplementary material

Haynes et al. supplementary material 1

Download Haynes et al. supplementary material(File)
File 97.8 KB