Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T20:11:16.491Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Lichenometric Dating: Science or Pseudo-Science?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Gerald Osborn ,
Daniel McCarthy ,
Aline LaBrie  and
Randall Burke
Gerald Osborn*
Affiliation:
Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary T2N1N4, Canada
Daniel McCarthy
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada
Aline LaBrie
Affiliation:
Canadian Natural Resources Ltd., 2500, 855 2nd Street SW, Calgary, Alberta T2P4J8, Canada
Randall Burke
Affiliation:
1705, 700 9th Street SW, Calgary, Alberta T2P2B5, Canada
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail address:[email protected] (G. Osborn).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The popular technique of estimating ages of deposits from sizes of lichens continues despite valid criticism, and without agreement on range of utility, treatment of error, and methods of measurement, sampling, and data handling. A major source of error is the assumption that the largest lichen(s) colonized soon after deposition and will survive indefinitely. Recent studies on lichen mortality suggest that this assumption is untenable. Meanwhile, the use of “growth curves” constructed from independently dated substrates is problematic for many reasons, but this has not prevented the publication of baseless claims of accuracy and ages that are extrapolated well beyond data. Experiments indicate that numeric lichenometric ages are not reliable, and in general do not advance the cause of Quaternary science. There are a few studies suggesting reliability, and indeed there may be cases where lichens and growth curves actually provide realistic numerical ages. But it cannot be foretold which lichen assemblages will provide good ages and which bad ages. The logical conclusion is that no assumption of good ages can be made, and that it is folly to assign numerical ages to a deposit on the basis of lichen sizes.

Keywords

LichenometryLichenometric datingGrowth curvesGeochronologyRhizocarpon geographicumGlacial chronology
Type
Forum Article
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 83 , Issue 1 , January 2015 , pp. 1 - 12
Copyright
University of Washington

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, S.M., Smith, D.J., (2007). Late Holocene glacial activity of Bridge Glacier, British Columbia Coast Mountains.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 44, (12).1753–1773.Google Scholar
Andrews, J.T., Barnett, D.M., (1979). Holocene (Neoglacial) moraine and proglacial lake chronology. Barnes Ice Cap, CanadaBoreas.8, 341–358.Google Scholar
Andrews, J.T., Webber, P.J., (1969). Lichenometry to evaluate changes in glacial mass budgets: as illustrated from north-central Baffin Island.N.W.T.Arctic and Alpine Research 1, (3).181–194.Google Scholar
Angiel, P.J., Dąbski, M., (2012). Lichenometric ages of the Little Ice Age moraines on King George Island and of the last volcanic activity on Penguin Island (West Antarctica).Geografiska Annaler Series A Physical Geography 94, 395–412.Google Scholar
Armstrong, R.A., (2005). Growth curves for four crustose lichens.Symbiosis 38, 47–57.Google Scholar
Armstrong, R.A., (2011). The biology of the crustose lichen Rhizocarpon geographicum .Symbiosis 55, (2).53–67.Google Scholar
Armstrong, R., Bradwell, T., (2010). Growth of crustose lichens: a review.Geografiska Annaler 92, (1).3–17.Google Scholar
Asta, J., Letrouit-Galinou, M.A., (1995). Observations on the early growth of Rhizocarpon geographicum thalli.Herzogia 11, 239–252.Google Scholar
Bacon, C.R., Lanphere, M.A., (2006). Eruptive history and geochronology of Mount Mazama and the Crater Lake region, Oregon.Geological Society of America Bulletin 118, 1331–1359.Google Scholar
Badding, M.E., Briner, J.P., Kaufman, D.S., (2013). 10Be ages of late Pleistocene deglaciation and neoglaciation in the north-central Brooks Range, Arctic Alaska.Journal of Quaternary Science 28, (1).95–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beget, J.E., (1994). Tephrochronology, lichenometry and radiocarbon dating at Gulkana Glacier, central Alaska Range, USA.The Holocene 4, 307–331.Google Scholar
Benedict, J.B., (1967). Recent glacial history of an alpine area in the Colorado Front Range, U.S.A.1. Establishing a lichen-growth curve.Journal of Glaciology 6, 817–832.Google Scholar
Benedict, J.B., (2009). A review of lichenometric dating and its applications to archaeology.American Antiquity 74, 143–173.Google Scholar
Beschel, R.E., (1950). Flechten als Altersmaßstab rezenter Moränen.Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Geologie1, 152–162(Translated by Barr, W., 1973. Lichens as a measure of the age of recent moraines. Arctic and Alpine Research 5, 303–309.)Google Scholar
Beschel, R.E., (1961). Dating rock surfaces by lichen growth and its application to glaciology and physiography (lichenometry).In: Raasch, G.O.(Ed.),Geology of the Arctic: Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Arctic Geology University of Toronto Press, Toronto.1044–1062.Google Scholar
Bickerton, R.W., Matthews, J.A., (1992). On the accuracy of lichenometric dates: an assessment based on the ‘Little Ice Age’ moraine sequence of Nigardsbreen. southern Norway, .The Holocene.2, (3).),227–237.Google Scholar
Bowerman, N.D., Clark, D.H., (2011). Holocene glaciation of the central Sierra Nevada, California.Quaternary Science Reviews 30, 1067–1085.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T., (2004). Lichenometric dating in southeast Iceland: the size–frequency approach.Geografiska Annaler 86, 31–41.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T., (2009). Lichenometric dating: a commentary, in the light of some recent statistical studies.Geografiska Annaler 91, (2).61–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradwell, T., (2010). Studies on the growth of Rhizocarpon geographicum in NW Scotland, and some implications for lichenometry.Geografiska Annaler 92, (1).41–52.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T., Armstrong, R.A., (2007). Growth rates of Rhizocarpon geographicum lichens: a review with new data from Iceland.Journal of Quaternary Science 22, 311–320.Google Scholar
Brock, F., Lee, S., Housley, R.A., Ramsey, C.B., (2011). Variation in the radiocarbon age of different fractions of peat: a case study from Ahrenshöft, northern Germany.Quaternary Geochronology 6, 550–555.Google Scholar
Bull, W.B., (1996). Dating San Andreas fault earthquakes with lichenometry.Geology 24, (2).111–114.Google Scholar
Bull, W.B., (2000). Lichenometry: a new way of dating and locating prehistorical earthquakes.In: Stratton, J., Sowers, J.M., Lettis, W.R.(Eds.),Quaternary Geochronology: Methods and ApplicationsAmerican Geophysical Union Reference Shelf Series 4, Washington DC. 521–526.Google Scholar
Bull, W.B., Brandon, M.T., (1998). Lichen dating of earthquake-generated regional rockfall events, Southern Alps, New Zealand.Geological Society America Bulletin 110, 60–84.Google Scholar
Calkin, P.E., Ellis, J.M., (1980). A lichenometric dating curve and its application to Holocene glacier studies in the central Brooks Range, Alaska.Arctic and Alpine Research 12, 245–264.Google Scholar
Calkin, P.E., Ellis, J.M., (1984). Development and application of a lichenometric dating curve, Brooks Range, Alaska.Quaternary Dating Methods 7, 227–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calkin, P.E., Kaufman, D.S., Przbyl, B.J., Whitford, W.B., Peck, B.J., (1998). Glacier regimes, periglacial landforms, and Holocene climate change in the Kigluaik Mountains, Seward Peninsula, Alaska, U.S.A..Arctic and Alpine Research 30, (2),154–165.Google Scholar
Caseldine, C., (1987). Neoglacial glacier variations in northern Iceland: examples from the Eyjafjordur area.Arctic and Alpine Research 19, 296–304.Google Scholar
Caseldine, C., (1991). Lichenometric dating, lichen population studies and Holocene glacial history in Tröllaskagi, northern Iceland.In: Maizels, J.K., Caseldine, C. (Eds.),Environmental Change in Iceland: Past and Present (2) Springer, Netherlands.pp. 219–233.Google Scholar
Chenet, M., Roussel, E., Jomelli, V., Grancher, D., (2010). Asynchronous Little Ice Age glacial maximum extent in southeast Iceland.Geomorphology 114, 253–260.Google Scholar
Clark, D.H., Gillespie, A.R., (1997). Timing and significance of late-glacial and Holocene cirque glaciation in the Sierra Nevada, California.Quaternary International 39, (39).21–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clayden, S.R., (1998). Thallus initiation and development in the lichen Rhizocarpon lecanorinum .New Phytologist 139, 685–695.Google Scholar
Clayden, S.R., Pentecost, A., Dawson, R.J.M., (2004). Growth of the lichen Rhizocarpon lecanorinum, with comments on Aplin-Hill and lichenometric curves.Symbiosis 37, (1–3).379–393.Google Scholar
Curry, R.R., (1969). Holocene climatic and glacial history of the central Sierra Nevada, California.GSA Special Paper 123, 1–48.Google Scholar
Dąbski, M., (2010). A commentary to ‛Asynchronous Little Ice Age glacial maximum extent in southeast Iceland’ by Chenet et al. (Geomorphology 114 (2010) 253–260); a case of Fláajökull.Geomorphology 120, 365–367.Google Scholar
Dąbski, M., Angiel, P., (2010). Geomorphic implications of the retreat of Breiðamerkurjökull in the southern part of the Skálabjörg ridge, Esjufjöll, Iceland.Jökull 60, 185–197.Google Scholar
Dahms, D.E., (2001). Glacial stratigraphy of Stough Creek Basin, Wind River Range, Wyoming.Geomorphology 42, 59–83.Google Scholar
Denton, G.H., Karlén, W., (1973). Lichenometry: its application to Holocene moraine studies in southern Alaska and Swedish Lapland.Arctic and Alpine Research 5, 347–373.Google Scholar
Ellis, J.M., Calkin, P.E., (1984). Chronology of Holocene glaciation, central Brooks Range, Alaska.Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 95, 897–912.Google Scholar
Erikstad, L., Sollid, J.L., (1986). Neoglaciation in South Norway using lichenometric methods.Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift – Norwegian Journal of Geography 40, (2).85–105.Google Scholar
Evans, D.J.A., Archer, S., Wilson, D.J.H., (1999). A comparison of the lichenometric and Schmidt hammer dating techniques based on data from the proglacial areas of some Icelandic glaciers.Quaternary Science Reviews 18, (1).13–41.Google Scholar
Garnett, M.H., Bradwell, T., (2010). Use of Bomb-14C to investigate the growth and carbon turnover rates of a crustose lichen.Geografiska Annaler Series A Physical Geography 92, (1).53–63.Google Scholar
Gellatly, A.F., (1982). Lichenometry as a relative-age dating method in Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand.New Zealand Journal of Botany 20, 343–353.Google Scholar
Gordon, J.E., Sharp, M., (1983). Lichenometry in dating recent glacial landforms and deposits, southeast Iceland.Boreas 12, 191–200.Google Scholar
Gouze, P., Argollo, J., Saliège, J., Servant, M., (1986). Interprétation paléoclimatique des oscillations des glaciers au cours des 20 derniers millénaires dans les régions tropicales; exemple des Andes boliviennes.Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences (Paris) 303, 219–224.Google Scholar
Hallet, B., Putkonen, J., (1994). Surface dating of dynamic landforms: young boulders on aging moraines.Science 265, (5174).937–940.Google Scholar
Hansen, E.S., (2008). The application of lichenometry in dating of glacier deposits.Geografisk Tidsskrift – Danish Journal of Geography 108, (1).143–151.Google Scholar
Harrison, S., Winchester, V., Glasser, N., (2007). The timing and nature of recession of outlet glaciers of Hielo Patagónico Norte, Chile, from their Neoglacial IV (Little Ice Age) maximum positions.Global and Planetary Change 59, 67–78.Google Scholar
Haworth, L.A., Calkin, P.E., Ellis, J.M., (1986). Direct measurement of lichen growth in the central Brooks Range, Alaska, USA, and its application to lichenometric dating.Arctic and Alpine Research 18, (3).289–296.Google Scholar
Hestmark, G., Skogesal, O., Skullerud, Ø., (2004). Growth, reproduction, and population structure in four alpine lichens during 240 years of primary colonization.Canadian Journal of Botany 82, 1356–1362.Google Scholar
Hurlbert, S.H., (1984). Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments.Ecological Monographs 52, (2).187–211.Google Scholar
Innes, J.L., (1981). ‘A manual for lichenometry’ – comment.Area 13, 237–241.Google Scholar
Innes, J.L., (1983a). Development of lichenometric dating curves for Highland Scotland.Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences 74, 23–32.Google Scholar
Innes, J.L., (1983b). Use of an aggregated Rhizocarpon ‘species’ in lichenometry: an evaluation.Boreas 12, 183–190.Google Scholar
Innes, J.L., (1984). The optimal sample size in lichenometric studies.Arctic and Alpine Research 16, (2).233–244.Google Scholar
Innes, J.L., (1985). Lichenometry.Progress in Physical Geography 9, 187–254.Google Scholar
Jettestuen, E., Nermoen, A., Hestmark, G., Timdal, E., Mathiesen, J., (2010). Competition on the rocks: community growth and tessellation.PLoS ONE 5, (9).1–5.Google Scholar
Jochimsen, M., (1973). Does the size of lichen thalli really constitute a valid measure for dating glacial deposits.Arctic and Alpine Research 5, 417–424.Google Scholar
John, E.A., (1989). Note on the sizes of largest thalli of three species of Rhizocarpon (subgenus Rhizocarpon) at a rockslide in the Canadian Rocky Mountains.Arctic and Alpine Research 21, 185–187.Google Scholar
Jomelli, V., Grancher, D., Naveau, P., Cooley, D., Brunstein, D., (2007). Assessment study of lichenometric methods for dating surfaces.Geomorphology 86, (1–2).131–143.Google Scholar
Jomelli, V., Naveau, P., Cooley, D., Grancher, D., Brunstein, D., Rabatel, A., (2010). A response to Bradwell's commentary on recent statistical studies in lichenometry.Geografiska Annaler 92, 487–489.Google Scholar
Karlen, W., Black, J.L., (2002). Estimates of lichen growth-rate in northern Sweden.Geografiska Annaler 84, (3–4).225–232.Google Scholar
Kirkbride, M.P., Dugmore, A.J., (2001). Can lichenometry be used to date the “Little Ice Age” glacial maximum in Iceland?.In: Ogilvie, A.E.J., Jonsson, T. (Eds.),The Iceberg in the Mist: Northern Research in Pursuit of a “Little Ice Age” (2) Springer, Netherlands.151–167.Google Scholar
Kirkbride, M.P., Dugmore, A.J., (2008). Two millennia of glacier advances from southern Iceland dated by tephrochronology.Quaternary Research 70, 398–411.Google Scholar
Larocque, S.J., Smith, D.J., (2004). Calibrated Rhizocarpon spp. growth curve for the Mount Waddington area, British Columbia Coast Mountains, Canada.Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 36, (4).407–418.Google Scholar
Lewis, D., Smith, D.J., (2004). Little Ice Age glacial activity in Strathcona Provincial Park, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 41, 285–297.Google Scholar
Locke III, W.W., (1983). Discussion of “size frequency distributions as a lichenometric technique: an assessment”.Arctic and Alpine Research 15, (3).419.Google Scholar
Locke III, W.W., Andrews, J.T., Webber, P.J., (1979). A manual for lichenometry.British Geomorphological Research Group Technical Bulletin 26, 47.Google Scholar
Loso, M.G., Doak, D.F., (2006). The biology behind lichenometric dating curves.Oecologia 147, 223–229.Google Scholar
Loso, M.G., Doak, D.F., Anderson, R.S., (2014). Lichenometric dating of Little Ice Age glacier moraines using explicit demographic models of lichen colonization, growth, and survival.Geografiska Annaler Series A Physical Geography 96, (1).21–41.Google Scholar
Luckman, B.H., (1977). Lichenometric dating of Holocene moraines at Mount Edith Cavell, Jasper, Alberta.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 14, (8).1809–1822.Google Scholar
Luckman, B., Osborn, G., (1979). Holocene glacier fluctuations in the middle Canadian Rocky Mountains.Quaternary Research 11, 52–77.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., (1974). Families of lichenometric dating curves from the Storbreen Gletschervorfeld, Jotunheimen, Norway.Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift – Norwegian Journal of Geography 28, (4).215–235.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., (1975). Experiments on the reproducibility and reliability of lichenometric dates, Storbreen gletschervorfeld, Jotunheimen, Norway.Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift – Norwegian Journal of Geography 29, (3).97–109.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., (1977). A lichenometric test of the 1750 end-moraine hypothesis: Storbreen gletscervorfeld, southern Norway.Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift – Norwegian Journal of Geography 31, (3).129–136.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., (1994). Lichenometric dating: a review with particular reference to ‘Little Ice Age’ moraines in southern Norway.In: Beck, C. (Eds.),Dating in Exposed and Surface Contexts University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.185–212.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., Trenbirth, H.E., (2011). Growth rate of a very large crustose lichen (Rhizocarpon subgenus) and its implications for lichenometry.Geografiska Annaler 93, 27–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarthy, D.P., (1999). A biological basis for lichenometry?.Journal of Biogeography 26, 379–386.Google Scholar
McCarthy, D.P., (2002). Lichenometry.In: Nimis, P.L., Scheidegger, C., Wolsley, P.A. (Eds.),Monitoring with Lichens–Monitoring Lichens Springer, Netherlands.379–383.Google Scholar
McCarthy, D.P., (2003). Estimating lichenometric ages by direct and indirect measurement: a case study of Rhizocarpon agg. at the Illecillewaet Glacier, British Columbia.Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research 35, 203–213.Google Scholar
McCarthy, D.P., (2007). Lichenometry.In: Elias, S.A. (Ed.),Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science Elsevier, Amsterdam.1399–1405.Google Scholar
McCarthy, D.P., (2013). Lichenometry.In: Elias, S.A., Mock, C.J. (Ed.),Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science Second edition Elsevier, Amsterdam.565–572.10.1016/B978-0-444-53643-3.00055-8.Google Scholar
McCarthy, D.P., Henry, N., (2012). Measurement of growth in the lichen Rhizocarpon geographicum using a new photographic technique.The Lichenologist 44, 679–693. 10.1017/S0024282912000175.Google Scholar
McCarthy, D.P., Smith, D.J., (1995). Growth curves for calcium-tolerant lichens in the Canadian Rocky Mountains.Arctic and Alpine Research 27, (3).290–297.Google Scholar
McKinzey, K.M., Orwin, J.F., Bradwell, T., (2004). Re-dating the moraines at Skálafellsjökull and Heinabergsjökull using different lichenometric methods: implications for the timing of the Icelandic Little Ice Age maximum.Geografiska Annaler 86, (4).319–335.Google Scholar
Menounos, B., Osborn, G., Clague, J.J., Luckman, B.H., (2009). Latest Pleistocene and Holocene glacier fluctuations in western Canada.Quaternary Science Reviews 28, (21–22).2049–2074.Google Scholar
Menounos, B., Goehring, B., Osborn, G., Clarke, G., Ward, B., Margold, M., Bond, J., Clague, J., Lakeman, T., Schaefer, J., Koch, J., Gosse, J., Stroeven, A., Seguinot, J., Heyman, J., Fulton, R., (2014). The complex behavior of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet and mountain glaciers to abrupt climate change during the latest Pleistocene.Abstract EGU2014-15013, European Geosciences Union General Assembly 2014, Vienna.Google Scholar
Miller, G.H., Andrews, J.T., (1972). Quaternary history of northern Cumberland Peninsula, east Baffin Island, N.W.T., Canada. Part VI: preliminary lichen growth curve.Geological Society of America Bulletin 83, 1133–1138.Google Scholar
Mullineaux, D.R., (1974). Pumice and other pyroclastic deposits in Mount Rainier National Park Washington.U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1326, 83.Google Scholar
Naveau, P., Jomelli, V., Cooley, D., Delphine, G., Rabatel, A., (2007). Modeling uncertanties in lichenometry studies.Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 39, (2).277–285.Google Scholar
Nicholas, J.W., Butler, D.R., (1996). Application of relative-age dating techniques on rock glaciers of the La Sal Mountains, Utah: an interpretation of Holocene paleoclimates.Geografiska Annaler 78, 1–18.Google Scholar
Noller, J.S., Locke, W.W., (2000). Lichenometry.In: Stratton, J., Sowers, J.M., Lettis, W.R. (Eds.),Quaternary Geochronology: Methods and ApplicationsAmerican Geophysical Union Reference Shelf Series 4, Washington DC. 261–272.Google Scholar
O'Neal, M.A., (2006). The effects of slope degradation on lichenometric dating of Little Ice Age moraines.Quaternary Geology 1, (2).121–128.Google Scholar
O'Neal, M.A., (2009). Identifying lichenometrically datable, glacerized terrains: a case study in the cascade range of western North America.Geocarto International 25, (4).315–325.Google Scholar
O'Neal, M.A., Schoenenberger, K.R., (2003). ARhizocarpon geographicum growth curve for the Cascade Range of Washington and northern Oregon, USA.Quaternary Research 60, 233–241.Google Scholar
Osborn, G.D., (1985). Holocene tephrostratigraphy and glacial fluctuations in Waterton Lakes and Glacier National Parks, Alberta and Montana.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 22, 1093–1101.Google Scholar
Osborn, G., (1988). Lichenometry.In: Finkl, C.W. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Field and General Geology 396–399.Google Scholar
Osborn, G., Taylor, J., (1975). Lichenometry on calcareous substrates in the Canadian Rockies.Quaternary Research 8, 111–120.Google Scholar
Pentecost, A., (1980). Aspects of competition in saxicolous lichen communities.The Lichenologist 12, 135–144.Google Scholar
Porter, S.C., (1981). Lichenometric studies in the Cascade Range, Washington: establishment of Rhizocarpon geographicum growth curves at Mount Rainier.Arctic and Alpine Research 13, 11–23.Google Scholar
Refsnider, K.A., Brugger, K.A., (2007). Rock glaciers in central Colorado as indicators of late-Holocene climate change: a lichenometric study using Rhizocarpon subgenus Rhizocarpon .Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research 39, 127–136.Google Scholar
Runemark, H., (1956). Studies in Rhizocarpon. I. Taxonomy of the yellow species in Europe.Opera Botanica 2, (1).1–152.Google Scholar
Savoskul, O.S., (1997). Lichenometric and 14C evidence for the Late Holocene glacier variations in the Oigaing River Basin, Western Tian Shan, Central Asia.Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie 33, 111–124.Google Scholar
Scuderi, L.A., Fawcett, P.J., (2013). Holocene environmental change resets lichen surface dates on Recess Peak glacial deposits in the Sierra Nevada, California.Quaternary Research 80, (2).180–188.Google Scholar
Sikorski, J.J., Kaufman, D.S., Manley, W.F., Nolan, M., (2009). Glacial–geologic evidence for decreased precipitation during the Little Ice Age in the Brooks Range, Alaska.Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 41, 138–150.Google Scholar
Solomina, O., Calkin, P., (2003). Lichenometry as applied to moraines in Alaska, U.S.A., and Kamchatka, Russia.Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 35, 129–143.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M.A., Reimer, P.J., (1993). Extended 14C database and revised CALIB 3.0 14C age calibration program.Radiocarbon 35, 215–230.Google Scholar
Trenbirth, H.E., Matthews, J.A., (2010). Lichen growth rates on glacier forelands in southern Norway: preliminary results from a 25-year monitoring programme.Geografiska Annaler 92, 19–39.Google Scholar
Webber, P.J., Andrews, J.T., (1973). Lichenometry: a commentary.Arctic and Alpine Research 5, 295–302.Google Scholar
Wilcox, W.D., (1930). The dam at Moraine Lake.American Alpine Journal 1, 189.Google Scholar
Wiles, G.C., Jacoby, G.C., Davi, N.K., McAllister, R.P., (2002). Late Holocene glacier fluctuations in the Wrangell Mountains, Alaska.Geological Society of America Bulletin 114, 896–908.Google Scholar
Wiles, G.C., Barclay, D.J., Young, N., (2010). A review of lichenometric dating of glacial moraines in Alaska.Geografiska Annaler 92, 101–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worsley, P., (1981). Lichenometry.In: Goudie, A.(Ed.),Geomorphological Techniques George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London.302–305.Google Scholar
Yi, C., Liu, K., Cue, Z., Jiao, K., Yao, T., He, Y., (2004). AMS radiocarbon dating of late Quaternary glacial landforms, source of the Urumqi River, Tien Shan–a pilot study of 14C dating on inorganic carbon.Quaternary International 121, 99–107.Google Scholar
Yi, C., Zhu, Z., Wei, L., Cui, Z., Zheng, B., Shi, Y., (2007). Advances in numerical dating of Quaternary glaciations in China.Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 51, (Suppl. 2).153–175.Google Scholar
Young, N.E., Briner, J.P., Kaufman, D.S., (2009). Late Pleistocene and Holocene glaciation of the Fish Lake valley, northeastern Alaska Range, Alaska.Journal of Quaternary Science 24, 677–689.Google Scholar