Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T01:30:18.277Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Energy requirements of children and adolescents

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2007

Benjamin Torun
Benjamin Torun*
Affiliation:
Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama (INCAP), Centro de Investigaciones y Docencia en America Latina (CIDAL)
*
*Corresponding author: Email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Total energy expenditure (TEE) was calculated at 1–18 years of age from measurements with doubly labelled water (DLW) in 483 boys and 646 girls, and heart rate monitoring (HRM) in 318 boys and 162 girls. Studies on obese, underweight and stunted groups were not included. TEE of populations with different lifestyles was estimated by factorial calculations in 42 studies on time allocation involving 1982 boys and 1969 girls in developed industrialised countries, and 1236 boys and 1116 girls in developing countries. Quadratic polynomial models were best to predict TEE in boys (TEE(MJ day−1) = 1.298 + 0.265 kg − 0.0011 kg2, r = 0.982, SEE = 0.518) and girls (TEE(MJ day−1) = 1.102 + 0.273 kg − 0.0019 kg2, r = 0.955, SEE = 0.650). TEE at 1–2 years was reduced by 7% based on DLW measurements and TEE estimates of infants. Energy requirements (ER) were calculated adding 8.6 kJ (2 kcal) for each gram of weight gained during growth. Compared with the 1985 FAO/WHO/UNU values1, ER were 18–20% lower from 1 to 7 years of age, 12% lower for boys and 5% lower for girls at 7–10 years, and 12% higher for either gender from 12 years onwards. Differences between industrialised and developing countries, the variance in DLW and HRM studies, and the standard error of the estimate (SEE) of the quadratic predictive equations, suggested that ER should be adjusted after 5 years of age by ±15% in populations with more or less physical activity than an average lifestyle. Physical activity recommendations must accompany dietary recommendations in order to maintain optimal health and reduce the risk of diseases associated with sedentary lifestyles.

Keywords

Energy requirementsEnergy expenditureDietary energyChildrenAdolescentsLifestylePhysical activityGrowthPredictive equations
Type
Research Article
Information
Public Health Nutrition , Volume 8 , Issue 7a , October 2005 , pp. 968 - 993
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2005

References

1FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. Energy and protein requirements. WHO Technical Report Series 724: 1–206Geneva: World Health Organization, 1985.Google Scholar
2FAO/WHO. Energy and Protein Requirements. FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, No. 52. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1973; WHO Technical Report Series, No. 522. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1973.Google Scholar
3FAO. Calorie Requirements: Report of the Committee on Calorie Requirements Nutrition Studies No. 5. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1950.Google Scholar
4FAO. Calorie Requirements: Report of the Second Committee on Calorie Requirements. Nutrition Studies No. 15. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1957.Google Scholar
5Ferro-Luzzi, A, Durnin, JVGA. The assessment of human energy intake and expenditure; a critical review of the recent literature. FAO Document ESN: FAO/WHO/UNU/EPR/81/9. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.Google Scholar
6Schurch, B, Scrimshaw, NS, eds. Activity, energy expenditure and energy requirements of infants and children. Lausanne: International Dietary Energy Consultancy Group, 1990.Google Scholar
7Prentice, AM, Vasquez-Velasquez, L, Davies, PSW, Lucas, A, Coward, WA. Total energy expenditure of free-living infants and children obtained by the doubly labelled water method. In: Schurch, B, Scrimshaw, NS, eds. Activity, Energy Expenditure and Energy Requirements of Infants and Children. Lausanne Switzerland: International Dietary Energy Consultancy Group, 1990, 83–101.Google Scholar
8Spurr, GB, Reina, JC. Estimation and validation of energy expenditure obtained by the minute-by-minute measurement of heart-rate. In: Schurch, B, Scrimshaw, NS, eds. Activity, Energy Expenditure and Energy Requirements of Infants and Children. Lausanne: International Dietary Energy Consultancy Group, 1990, 57–69.Google Scholar
9Torun, B. Energy cost of various physical activities in healthy children. In: Schurch, B, Scrimshaw, NS, eds. Activity, Energy Expenditure and Energy Requirements of Infants and Children. Lausanne: International Dietary Energy Consultancy Group, 1990, 139–83.Google Scholar
10Scrimshaw, NS, Waterlow, JC, Schurch, B, eds. Energy and protein requirements. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1996; 50(Suppl. 1): 197.Google Scholar
11Torun, B, Davies, PSW, Livingstone, MBE, Paolisso, M, Sackett, R, Spurr, GB. Energy requirements and dietary energy recommendations for children and adolescents 1 to 18 years old. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1996; 50(Suppl. 1): S37–S81.Google ScholarPubMed
12Schofield, WN. Predicting basal metabolic rate, new standards and review of previous work. Human Nutrition Clinical Nutrition 1985; 39C(Suppl. 1): 5–41.Google Scholar
13Butte, NF, Henry, CJK, Torun, B. Report of the working group on energy requirements of infants, children and adolescents. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1996; 50(Suppl. 1): S188–9.Google Scholar
14Butte, NF. Energy requirements of infants Background Document for FAO/WHO/UNU Working Group Meeting. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 2001.Google Scholar
15WHO. Measuring Change in Nutritional Status. Geneva: World Heath Organization, 1983.Google Scholar
16Must, A, Dallal, GE, Dietz, WH. Reference data for obesity: 85th and 95th percentiles of body mass index (wt/ht2) – a correction. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1991; 54: 773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17WHO. Physical Status: The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry. WHO Technical Report Series No. 854. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1995.Google Scholar
18Maffeis, C, Schutz, Y, Zoccante, L, Micciolo, R, Pinelli, L. Meal-induced thermogenesis in lean and obese prepubertal children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1993; 57: 481–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19Goran, MI, Nagy, TR. Effect of the pre-testing environment on measurement of metabolic rate in children. International Journal of Obesity 1996; 20: 83–7.Google ScholarPubMed
20Lifson, B, Gordon, GB, McClintock, R. Measurement of total carbon dioxide production by means of D218O. Journal of Applied Physiology 1955; 7: 704–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21Schoeller, DA, van Santen, E. Measurement of energy expenditure in humans by doubly labelled water method. Journal of Applied Physiology 1982; 53: 955–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22Klein, PD, James, WPT, Wong, WW, Irving, CS, Murgatroyd, PR, Cabrera, M, Dallasso, HM, Klein, ER, Nichols, BL. Calorimetric validation of the doubly labelled water method for determination of energy expenditure in man. Human Nutrition Clinical Nutrition 1984; 38C: 95–106.Google Scholar
23Coward, WA, Prentice, AM, Murgatroyd, PR, et al. Measurement of CO2 and water production rate in man using 2H 18O-labeled H2O – comparison between calorimeter and isotope values. In: Human Energy Metabolism, Physiological Activity and Energy Expenditure in Epidemiological Research Based upon Direct and Indirect Calorimetry. Euronut. Report No. 5: 126–128, 1984.Google Scholar
24Durnin, JVGA. Energy requirements: general principles. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1996; 50(Suppl. 1): S2–10.Google ScholarPubMed
25Goran, MI, Gower, BA, Nagy, TR, Johnson, RK. Developmental changes in energy expenditure and physical activity in children: evidence for a decline in physical activity in girls before puberty. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 887–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26Booyens, J, Hervey, CR. The pulse rate as a means of measuring metabolic rate in man. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology 1960; 38: 1301–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27Bradfield, RB. A technique for determination of usual daily energy expenditure in the field. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1971; 24: 1148–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28Heywood, PF, Latham, MC. Use of the SAMI heart rate integrator in malnourished children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1971; 24: 1446–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29Spurr, GB, Prentice, AM, Murgatroyd, PR, Goldberg, GR, Reina, JC, Christman, NT. Energy expenditure from minute-by-minute heart-rate recording: comparison with indirect calorimetry. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988; 48: 552–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30Ceesay, SM, Prentice, AM, Day, KC, Murgatroyed, PR, Goldberg, GR, Schott, W. The use of heart rate monitoring in the estimation of energy expenditure: a validation study using indirect whole-body calorimetry. British Journal of Nutrition 1989; 61: 175–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31Livingstone, MBE, Prentice, AM, Coward, WA, Ceesay, SM, Strain, JJ, McKenna, PG, Nevin, GB, Barker, ME, Hickey, RJ. Simultaneous measurement of free-living energy expenditure by the doubly labelled water method and heart-rate monitoring. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1990; 52: 59–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32Livingstone, MBE, Coward, WA, Prentice, AM, Davies, PSW, Strain, JJ, McKenna, PG, Mahoney, CA, White, JA. Stewart, CM, Kerr, MJ. Daily energy expenditure in free-living children: comparison of heart-rate monitoring with the doubly labelled water (2H218O) method. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992; 56: 343–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33Emons, HJG, Groenenboom, DC, Westerterp, KR, Saris, WHM. Comparison of heart rate monitoring combined with indirect calorimetry and the doubly labelled water method (2H218O) for the measurement of energy expenditure in children. European Journal of Applied Physiology 1992; 65: 99–103CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34Maffeis, C, Pinelli, L, Zaffanello, M, Schena, F, Iacumin, P, Schutz, Y. Daily energy expenditure in free-living conditions in obese and non-obese children: comparison of doubly labelled water method (2H218O) and heart-rate monitoring. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 1995; 19: 671–7.Google ScholarPubMed
35van den Berg-Emons, RJG, Saris, WHM, Westerterp, KR, van Baak, MA. Heart rate monitoring to assess energy expenditure in children with reduced physical activity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 1996; 28: 496–501CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36Davidson, L, NcNeill, G, Haggarty, P, Smith, JS, Franklin, MF. Free-living energy expenditure of adult men assessed by continuous heart-rate monitoring and doubly labelled water. British Journal of Nutrition 1997; 78: 695–708CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37Ekelund, U, Sjöström, M, Yngve, A, Nilsson, A. Total daily energy expenditure and pattern of physical activity measured by minute-by-minute heart rate monitoring in 14–15 year old Swedish adolescents. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000; 54: 195–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38Butte, NF, Wong, WW, Hopkinson, JM, Heinz, CJ, Mehta, NR, Smith, EO. Energy requirements derived from total energy expenditure and energy deposition during the first 2 y of life. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000; 72: 1558–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39FAO. Human energy requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. Food Nutrition Technical Report Series No. 1. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 2001.Google Scholar
40Ashworth, A. Metabolic rates during recovery from protein-calorie malnutrition: the need for a new concept of specific dynamic action. Nature 1969; 223: 407–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41Kerr, D, Ashworth, A, Picou, D, Poulter, N, Seakins, A, Spady, D, Wheeler, E. Accelerated recovery from infant malnutrition with high caloric feeding. In: Gardner, L, Amacher, L, eds. Endocrine Aspects of Malnutrition. Santa Ynez, CA: Kroc Foundation, 1973, 467–79.Google Scholar
42Whitehead, RG. The protein needs of malnourished children. In: Porter, JW, Rolls, BA, eds. Proteins in Human Nutrition. London: Academic Press, 1973, 103–17.Google Scholar
43Spady, DW, Payne, PR, Picou, D, Waterlow, JC. Energy balance during recovery from malnutrition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1976; 29: 1073–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44Krieger, I, Whitten, CF. Nitrogen balance and calorie efficiency in small-for-date dwarfism. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1976; 29: 38–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45Jackson, AA, Picou, D, Reeds, PJ. The energy cost of repleting tissue deficits during recovery from protein-energy malnutrition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1977; 30: 1514–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46Fjeld, CR, Schoeller, DA, Brown, KH. Body composition of children recovering from severe protein-energy malnutrition at two rates of catch-up growth. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1989; 50: 1266–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47Fjeld, CR, Schoeller, DA, Brown, KH. A new model for predicting energy requirements of children during catch-up growth developed using doubly labelled water. Pediatric Research 1989; 25: 503–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
48Butte, NF, Wong, WW, Garza, C. Energy cost of growth during infancy. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 1989; 48: 303–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49Jéquier, E. Energy cost of growth in infants. Bibliotheca Nutritio et Dieta 1996; 53: 129–34.Google Scholar
50Butte, NF, Hopkinson, JM, Wong, WW, Smith, EO, Ellis, KJ. Body composition during the first 2 years of life: an updated reference. Pediatric Research 2000; 47: 578–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51Roberts, SB, Young, VR. Energy cost of fat and protein deposition in the human infant. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988; 48: 951–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52Rodgers, G, Standing, G, eds. Child work, poverty and underdevelopment. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1981.Google Scholar
53Munroe, RH, Munroe, RL, Shimmin, HS. Children's work in four cultures: determinants and consequences. American Anthropologist 1984; 86: 369–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
54Walker, SP. Nutritional issues for women in developing countries. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 1997; 56: 345–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55Durnin, JVGA. Activity patterns in the community. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1967; 96: 882–8.Google ScholarPubMed
56Torun, B. Physiological measurements of physical activity among children under free-living conditions. In: Pollitt, E, Amante, P, eds. Energy Intake and Activity. New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc, 1984, 159–84.Google Scholar
57Torun, B. Inaccuracy of applying energy expenditure rates of adults to children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1983; 38: 813–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
58Bratteby, LE, Sandhagen, B, Fan, H, Samuelson, G. A 7-day activity dairy for assessment of daily energy expenditure validated by the doubly labelled water method in adolescents. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997; 51: 585–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
59Ekelund, U, Yngve, A, Sjöström, M. Total daily energy expenditure and patterns of physical activity assessed by two different methods in adolescents. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 1999; 9: 257–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60Leonard, WR, Galloway, VA, Ivakine, E. Underestimation of daily energy expenditure with the factorial method: implications for anthropological research. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1997; 103: 443–54.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61Spurr, GB, Reina, JC. Patterns of daily energy expenditure in normal and marginally undernourished school-aged Colombian children. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988; 42: 819–34.Google ScholarPubMed
62Wren, RE, Blume, H, Mazariegos, M, Solomons, N, Alvarez, JO, Goran, MI. Body composition, resting metabolic rate, and energy requirements of short- and normal-stature, low-income Guatemalan children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997; 66: 406–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
63Hoffman, DJ, Sawaya, AL, Coward, WA, Wright, A, Martins, PA, de Nascimento, C, Tucker, KL, Roberts, SB. Energy expenditure of stunted and nonstunted boys and girls living in the shantytowns of São Paulo, Brazil. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000; 72: 1025–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64Prentice, AM, Lucas, A, Vasquez-Velasquez, L, Davies, PSW, Whitehead, RG. Are current dietary guidelines for young children a prescription for overfeeding? Lancet 1988; 2: 1066–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65Davies, PSW, Gregory, J, White, A. Energy expenditure in children aged 1.5 to 4.5 years: a comparison with current recommendations for energy intake. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1995; 49: 360–4.Google Scholar
66Davies, PSW, Livingstone, MBE, Prentice, AM, Coward, WA, Jagger, SE, Stewart, C, Strain, JJ, Whitehead, RG. Total energy expenditure during childhood and adolescence. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 1991; 50: 14AGoogle Scholar
67Salazar, G, Vio, F, Garcia, C, Aguirre, E, Coward, WA. Energy requirements in Chilean infants. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition 2000; 83: F120–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68Kaskoun, MC, Johnson, RK, Goran, MI. Comparison of energy intake by semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire with total energy expenditure by the doubly labelled water method in young children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994; 60: 43–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69Goran, MI, Kaskoun, M, Johnson, R, Martinez, C, Kelly, B, Hood, V. Energy expenditure and body fat distribution in Mohawk children. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 89–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70Fontvieille, AM, Harper, IT, Ferraro, RT, Spraul, M, Ravussin, E. Daily energy expenditure by five-year-old children, measured by doubly labelled water. Journal of Pediatrics 1993; 123: 200–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71Trowbridge, CA, Gower, BA, Nagy, TR, Hunter, GR, Treuth, MS, Goran, MI. Maximal aerobic capacity in African–American and Caucasian prepubertal children. American Journal of Physiology 1997; 273: E809–14.Google ScholarPubMed
72Valencia, ME, McNeill, G, Haggarty, P, Moya, SY, Pinelli, A, Quihui, L, Davalos, R. Energetic consequences of mild giardia intestinalis infestation in Mexican children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1995; 61: 860–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
73Sun, M, Gower, BA, Nagy, TR, Trowbridge, CA, Dezenberg, C, Goran, MI. Total, resting, and activity-related energy expenditures are similar in Caucasian and African–American children. American Journal of Physiology 1998; 274: E232–7.Google ScholarPubMed
74Ekelund, ULF, Sjöström, M, Yngve, A, Poortvliet, E, Nilsson, A, Froberg, K, Wedderkopp, N, Westerterp, K. Physical activity assessed by activity monitor and doubly labelled water in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2001; 33: 275–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75Saris, WHM, Emons, HJG, Groenenboom, DC, Westerterp, KR. Discrepancy between FAO/WHO energy requirements and actual energy expenditure in healthy 7–11 year old children. 14th International Seminar on Pediatric Work Physiology. Lueven, Belgium, 1989.Google Scholar
76Champagne, CM, Baker, NB, DeLany, JP, Harsha, DW, Bray, GA. Assessment of energy intake underreporting by doubly labelled water and observations on reported nutrient intakes in children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1998; 98: 426–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77Roemmich, JN, Clark, PA, Mai, V, Berr, SS, Weltman, A, Veldhuis, JD, Rogol, AD. Alterations in growth and body composition during puberty: Influence of maturation, gender, body composition, fat distribution, aerobic fitness, and energy expenditure on nocturnal growth hormonal release. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1998; 83: 1440–7.Google Scholar
78Bandini, LG, Schoeller, DA, Dietz, WH. Energy expenditure in obese and nonobese adolescents. Pediatric Research 1990; 27: 198–202CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79Treuth, MS, Figueroa-Colon, R, Hunter, GR, Weinsier, RL, Butte, NF, Goran, MI. Energy expenditure and physical fitness in overweight vs non-overweight prepubertal girls. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 1998; 22: 440–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80Treuth, MS, Butte, NF, Wong, WW. Effects of familial predisposition to obesity on energy expenditure in multiethnic prepubertal girls. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000; 71: 893–900.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81Wong, WW. Energy expenditure of female adolescents. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1994; 13: 332–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82Wong, WW, Butte, NF, Hergenroeder, AC, Hill, RB, Stuff, JE, Smith, O. Are basal metabolic rate prediction equations appropriate for female children and adolescents? Journal of Applied Physiology 1996; 81: 2407–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83Spurr, GB, Reina, JC, Barac-Nieto, M. Marginal malnutrition in school-aged Colombian boys: metabolic rate and estimated daily energy expenditure. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1986; 44: 113–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84Maffeis, C, Schutz, Y, Zaffanello, M, Piccoli, R, Pinelli, L. Elevated energy expenditure and reduced energy intake in obese prepubertal children: paradox of poor dietary reliability in obesity? Journal of Pediatrics 1994; 124: 348–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85Spady, DW. Total daily energy expenditure of healthy, free ranging school children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1980; 33: 766–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86Brown, DC, Kelnar, CJH, Wu, FCW. Energy metabolism during male human puberty. Changes in energy expenditure during the onset of puberty in boys. Annals of Human Biology 1996; 23: 273–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87Ramirez, M, Torun, B. Actividad fisica y necesidades de energia de escolares con distintos antecedentes nutricionales. Proceedings 36th Congress of Pediatrics, Guatemala. 1994.Google Scholar
88Spurr, GB, Reina, JC. Influence of dietary intervention on artificially increased activity in marginally undernourished Colombian boys. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988; 42: 835–46.Google ScholarPubMed
89Spurr, GB, Reina, JC. Marginal malnutrition in school-aged Colombian girls: dietary intervention and daily energy expenditure. Human Nutrition Clinical Nutrition 1987; 41C: 93–104Google Scholar
90Lawrence, M, Lawrence, F, Durnin, JVGA, Whitehead, RG. A comparison of physical activity in Gambia and UK children aged 6–18 months. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1991; 45: 243–52.Google ScholarPubMed
91Torun, B. Short- and long-effects of low or restricted energy intakes on the activity of infants and children. In: Schürch, B, Scrimshaw, NS, eds. Activity, Energy Expenditure and Energy Requirements of Infants and Children. Lausanne: International Dietary Energy Consultancy Group, 1990, 335–58.Google Scholar
92Guzman, MP, Cabrera, JP, Yuchingtat, GP, Almero, EM, Solanzo, FG, Gaurano, AL. Energy expenditure and dietary intake of one to nineteen years old children. Philippine J Sci 1991; 120: 81–105.Google Scholar
93Katzmarzyk, PT, Malina, RM, Song, TMK, Bouchard, C. Television viewing, physical activity, and health-related fitness of youth in the Québec Family Study. Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine 1998; 23: 318–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
94Katzmarzyk, PT, Malina, RM, Bouchard, C. Physical activity, physical fitness, and coronary heart disease risk factors in youth: The Québec Family Study. Preventive Medicine 1999; 29: 555–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
95Banerjee, B, Saha, N. Energy intake and expenditure of Indian schoolboys. British Journal of Nutrition 1972; 27: 483–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96McNaughton, JW, Cahn, AJ. A study of the food intake and activity of a group or urban adolescents. British Journal of Nutrition 1970; 24: 331–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97McNaughton, JW, Cahn, AJ. A study of the energy expenditure and food intake of five boys and four girls. British Journal of Nutrition 1970; 24: 345–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98Bénéfice, E, Cames, C. Physical activity patterns of rural Senegalese adolescent girls during the dry and rainy seasons measured by movement registration and direct observation methods. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999; 53: 636–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99Bradfield, RB, Paulos, J, Grossman, L. Energy expenditure and heart rate of obese high school girls. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1971; 24: 1482–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
100Loucky, J. Children's work and family survival in highland Guatemala. Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), 1988.Google Scholar
101Niemi, I, Kiiski, S, Liikkanen, M. Use of time in Finland. Helsinki: Central Statistical Office of Finland, 1981.Google Scholar
102Acharya, M, Bennett, L. The Rural Women of Nepal: an aggregate analysis and summary of 8 village studies. Kathmandu: Centre for Economic Development and Administration, 1981.Google Scholar
103Andersen, KL, Masironi, R, Rutenfranz, J, Seliger, V, Habitual Physical Activity and Health. WHO Regional Publication, European Series No. 6. Copenhagen: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, 1978.Google Scholar
104Berio, AJ. The use of time allocation data in developing countries: from influencing development policies to estimating energy requirements. Paper prepared for the International Research Group on Time Budgets and Social Activities. Helsinki, Finland, 1984.Google Scholar
105Carbañero, TA. ‘The shadow price’ of children in Philippine rural households. Master's thesis. University of the Philippines, Quezon City. Cited in:Google Scholar
106Binswanger, H, Evenson, RE, Florencio, CA, White, BNF, eds. Rural Household Studies in Asia. Kent Ridge Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1980.Google Scholar
107Cain, M. The economic activities of children in a village in Bangladesh. Population and Development Review 1977; 3: 201–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108Colfer, CJ. Women, men and time in the forest of east Kalimantan. East–West Environment and Policy Institute. Reprint No. 25, 1981.Google Scholar
109Dresen, MHW, de Groot, G, Brandt Corstius, JJ, Krediet, GHB, Meijer, MGH. Physical work capacity and daily physical activities of handicapped and non-handicapped children. European Journal of Applied Physiology 1982; 48: 241–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
110Durnin, JVGA. Physical activity of adolescents. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 1971; 217(Suppl.): 133–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111Franklin, D, Harrell, MW. Resource allocation decisions in low-income rural households. Food Policy 1985; 10: 100–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
112Gilliam, TB, Freedson, PS, Geenen, DL, Shahraray, B. Physical activity patterns determined by heart rate monitoring in 6–7 year-old children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 1981; 13: 57–65CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113Grossman, LS. Peasants, Subsistence Ecology, and Development in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
114Hart, J. Patterns of household labour allocation in a Javanese village. In: Binswanger, H, ed. Rural Household Studies in Asia. Kent Ridge Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
115Ho, Z-C, Zi, HM, Bo, L, Ping, H. Energy expenditure of preschool children in a subtropical area. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 1988; 57: 75–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
116Huenemann, RL, Shapiro, RL, Hampton, MC, Mitchell, BW. Teen-agers' activities and attitudes toward activity. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1967; 51: 433–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117Johnson, ML, Burke, BS, Mayer, J. Relative importance of inactivity and overeating in the energy balance of obese high school girls. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1956; 4: 37–44CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
118Johnson, A, Johnson, O. Time allocation among the Machiguenga of Shimaa. Cross-Cultural Studies in Time Allocation. New Haven: Human Relations Area Files Press, Vol. 1, 1987.Google Scholar
119MacConnie, SE, Gilliam, TB, Geenen, DL, Pels, AE. Daily physical activity patterns of prepubertal children involved in a vigorous exercise program. International Journal of Sports Medicine 1982; 3: 202–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
120Maffeis, C, Zaffanello, M, Pinelli, L, Schutz, Y. Total energy expenditure and patterns of activity in 8–10-year-old obese and nonobese children. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 1996; 23: 256–61.Google ScholarPubMed
121Mueller, E. The value and allocation of time in rural Botswana. Journal of Development Economics 1984; 15: 329–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
122Munroe, RH, Koel, A, Munroe, RL, Bolton, R, Michelson, C, Bolton, C. Time allocation in four societies. Ethnology 1983; 22: 355–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
123Munroe, RL, Munroe, RH. Logoli time allocation. Cross-Cultural Studies in Time Allocation. New Haven: Human Relations Area Files Press, 5. 1989.Google Scholar
124Nag, M, White, B, Peet, RC. An anthropological approach to the study of the economic value of children in Java and Nepal. Current Anthropology 1978; 19: 293–306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
125Paolisso, M, Sackett, R. Time allocation among the Irapa-Yukpa. Cross-Cultural Studies in Time Allocation. New Haven: Human Relations Area Files Press, 2, 1988.Google Scholar
126Rutenfranz, J, Berndt, I, Knauth, P. Daily physical activity investigated by time budget studies and physical performance capacity of school boys. Acta Paediatrica Belgica 1974; 28(Suppl.): 79–86.Google ScholarPubMed
127Saris, WHM, Binkhorst, RA, Cramwinckel, AB, Van Der Veen-Hezemans, AM, Van Waesderghe, F. Evaluation of somatic effects of a health education program for schoolchildren. Bibliotheca Nutritio et Dieta 1979; 27: 77–84.Google Scholar
128Seliger, V, Trefny, Z, Bartunkova, S, Pauer, M. The habitual activity and physical fitness of twelve-year-old boys. Acta Paediatrica Belgica 1974; 28: 54–9.Google Scholar
129Shephard, RJ, Jéquier, JC, Lavallée, H, La Barre, R, Rajic, M. Habitual physical activity: Effects of sex, milieu, season and required activity. Journal of Sports Medicine 1980; 20: 55–66.Google ScholarPubMed
130Stefanik, P, Heald, FP Jr., Mayer, J. Caloric intake in relation to energy output of obese and non-obese adolescent boys. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1959; 7: 55–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
131Sunnegardh, J, Bratteby, LE, Sjolin, S. Physical activity and sport involvement in 8–13 year old children in Sweden. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 1985; 74: 904–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
132Torun, B, Rodriguez, M, Ramirez, M, Viteri, FE. Energy expenditure and intake of pubertal girls of low-income families in Guatemala. Proceedings 15th International Congress of Nutrition, Adelaide, Australia, 1993.Google Scholar
133Turke, P. Helpers at the nest: childcare networks of Ifaluk. In: Betzig, L, Borgerhoff Mulder, M, Turke, P, eds. Human Reproductive Behavior. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1988, 173–88.Google Scholar
134Rueda-Williamson, R, Luna-Jaspe, H, Ariza, J, Pardo, F, Mora, JO. Estudio seccional de crecimiento, desarrollo y nutricion en 12,138 niños de Bogota, Colombia. Pediatria (Colombia) 1969; 110: 337–49.Google Scholar