Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T02:56:45.979Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Personalized attention control therapy for PTSD: effectiveness and moderators of outcome in a randomized controlled trial

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 November 2020

Adva Segal Open the ORCID record for Adva Segal [Opens in a new window] ,
Daniel S. Pine  and
Yair Bar-Haim
Adva Segal*
Affiliation:
School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Daniel S. Pine
Affiliation:
Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, Emotion and Development Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
Yair Bar-Haim
Affiliation:
School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
*
Author for correspondence: Adva Segal, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Previous randomized controlled trials (RCTs) suggest that attention control therapy (ACT), targeting aberrant fluctuations of attention toward and away from threats in patients with PTSD, may be effective in reducing symptoms. The current RCT examined whether the use of personalized-trauma stimuli enhances ACT efficacy in patients with PTSD. Additional moderators of treatment outcome were tested on an exploratory basis.

Methods

Sixty patients with PTSD were randomly assigned to either personalized ACT, non-personalized ACT, or a control condition. Changes in symptoms were examined across pre-treatment, post-treatment, and a 3-month follow-up. Attentional interference was examined pre- and post-treatment. Baseline clinical and cognitive indices as well as the time elapsed since the trauma were tested as potential moderators of treatment outcome.

Results

A significant reduction in clinical symptoms was noted for all three conditions with no between-group differences. Attention bias variability decreased following ACT treatment. Personalized ACT was more effective relative to the control condition when less time had elapsed since the trauma. Baseline clinical and cognitive indices did not moderate treatment outcome.

Conclusions

In this RCT of patients with PTSD, ACT was no more effective in reducing PTSD symptoms than a control condition. The data also suggest a potential benefit of personalized ACT for patients who experienced their trauma more recently.

Keywords

Attention control therapyPTSDrandomized control trial
Type
Original Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 52 , Issue 12 , September 2022 , pp. 2365 - 2375
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abend, R., Dan, O., Maoz, K., Raz, S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2014a). Reliability, validity and sensitivity of a computerized visual analog scale measuring state anxiety. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 45, 447–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.06.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abend, R., Karni, A., Sadeh, A., Fox, N. A., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2013). Learning to attend to threat accelerates and enhances memory consolidation. PLoS ONE, 8, e62501. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abend, R., Pine, D. S., Fox, N. A., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2014b). Learning and memory consolidation processes of attention-bias modification in anxious and nonanxious individuals. Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 620–627. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614526571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alon, Y., Naim, R., Pine, D. S., Bliese, P. D., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2019). Validity of attention bias variability indices for posttraumatic stress disorder research: Evidence from patient data. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32, 791–798. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amir, N., Taylor, C. T., & Donohue, M. C. (2011). Predictors of response to an attention modification program in generalized social phobia. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 533–541. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023808.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armour, C., Tsai, J., Durham, T. A., Charak, R., Biehn, T. L., Elhai, J. D., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2015). Dimensional structure of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress symptoms: Support for a hybrid anhedonia and externalizing behaviors model. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 61, 106–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.10.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O. (2012). Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 704–723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aupperle, R. L., Melrose, A. J., Stein, M. B., & Paulus, M. P. (2012). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology, 62, 686–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badura-Brack, A. S., Naim, R., Ryan, T. J., Levy, O., Abend, R., Khanna, M. M., … Bar-Haim, Y. (2015). Effect of attention training on attention bias variability and PTSD symptoms: Randomized controlled trials in Israeli and U.S. Combat Veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 1233–1241. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14121578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y. (2010). Research review: Attention bias modification (ABM): A novel treatment for anxiety disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 51, 859–870. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02251.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y., Holoshitz, Y., Eldar, S., Frenkel, T. I., Muller, D., Charney, D. S., … Wald, I. (2010). Life-threatening danger and suppression of attention bias to threat. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 694–698. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09070956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bardeen, J. R., Tull, M. T., Daniel, T. A., Evenden, J., & Stevens, E. N. (2016). A preliminary investigation of the time course of attention bias variability in posttraumatic stress disorder: The moderating role of attentional control. Behaviour Change, 33, 94–111. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2016.5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basanovic, J., Notebaert, L., Grafton, B., Hirsch, C. R., & Clarke, P. J. F. (2017). Attentional control predicts change in bias in response to attentional bias modification. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 99, 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.09.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beevers, C. G., Lee, H. J., Wells, T. T., Ellis, A. J., & Telch, M. J. (2011). Association of predeployment gaze bias for emotion stimuli with later symptoms of PTSD and depression in soldiers deployed in Iraq. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 735–741. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10091309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berk, M., Ng, F., Dodd, S., Callaly, T., Campbell, S., Bernardo, M., & Trauer, T. (2008). The validity of the CGI severity and improvement scales as measures of clinical effectiveness suitable for routine clinical use. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 14, 979–983. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2007.00921.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bomyea, J., & Amir, N. (2011). The effect of an executive functioning training program on working memory capacity and intrusive thoughts. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 35, 529–535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-011-9369-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bovin, M. J., Marx, B. P., Weathers, F. W., Gallagher, M. W., Rodriguez, P., Schnurr, P. P., & Keane, T. M. (2016). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist for diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-fifth edition (PCL-5) in veterans. Psychological Assessment, 28, 1379–1391. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 214–227. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. G. (1997). Attentional bias in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 635–644. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490100409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckley, T. C., Blanchard, E. B., & Neill, W. T. (2000). Information processing and PTSD: A review of the empirical literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 1041–1065. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00030-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, N. T. M., Clarke, P. J. F., Watson, T. L., MacLeod, C., & Guastella, A. J. (2015). Attentional bias modification facilitates attentional control mechanisms: Evidence from eye tracking. Biological Psychology, 104, 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.12.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cisler, J. M., & Koster, E. H. W. (2010). Mechanisms of attentional biases towards threat in anxiety disorders: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cloitre, M., Petkova, E., Su, Z., & Weiss, B. J. (2016). Patient characteristics as a moderator of posttraumatic stress disorder treatment outcome: Combining symptom burden and strengths. BJPsych Open, 2, 101–106. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjpo.bp.115.000745.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Constans, J. I., Vasterling, J. J., McCloskey, M. S., Brailey, K., & Mathews, A. (2004). Suppression of Attentional Bias in PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.113.2.315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Das, P., Kemp, A. H., Liddell, B. J., Brown, K. J., Olivieri, G., Peduto, A., … Williams, L. M. (2005). Pathways for fear perception: Modulation of amygdala activity by thalamo-cortical systems. NeuroImage, 26, 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.01.049.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duffy, M., Gillespie, K., & Clark, D. M. (2007). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the context of terrorism and other civil conflict in Northern Ireland: Randomised controlled trial. BMJ, 334, 1147. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39021.846852.BE.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehlers, A., Grey, N., Wild, J., Stott, R., Liness, S., Deale, A., … Manley, J. (2013). Implementation of cognitive therapy for PTSD in routine clinical care: Effectiveness and moderators of outcome in a consecutive sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51, 742–752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2013.08.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Enock, P. M., Hofmann, S. G., & McNally, R. J. (2014). Attention bias modification training via smartphone to reduce social anxiety: A randomized, controlled multi-session experiment. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38, 200–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-014-9606-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erbes, C., Westermeyer, J., Engdahl, B., & Johnsen, E. (2007). Post-traumatic stress disorder and service utilization in a sample of service members from Iraq and Afghanistan. Military Medicine, 172, 359–363. https://doi.org/10.7205/milmed.172.4.359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion (Washington, DC), 7, 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fani, N., Tone, E. B., Phifer, J., Norrholm, S. D., Bradley, B., Ressler, K. J., … Jovanovic, T. (2012). Attention bias toward threat is associated with exaggerated fear expression and impaired extinction in PTSD. Psychological Medicine, 42, 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711001565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear. Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 20–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guy, W. (2000). Clinical global impressions scale (CGI). In Rush, A. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychiatric measures (pp. 100–102). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F., & Rockwood, N. J. (2017). Regression-based statistical mediation and moderation analysis in clinical research: Observations, recommendations, and implementation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 98, 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.11.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hedges, D. W., Brown, B. L., & Shwalb, D. A. (2009). A direct comparison of effect sizes from the clinical global impression-improvement scale to effect sizes from other rating scales in controlled trials of adult social anxiety disorder. Human Psychopharmacology, 24, 35–40. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heeren, A., Mogoaşe, C., McNally, R. J., Schmitz, A., & Philippot, P. (2015a). Does attention bias modification improve attentional control? A double-blind randomized experiment with individuals with social anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 29, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.10.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heeren, A., Mogoașe, C., Philippot, P., & McNally, R. J. (2015b). Attention bias modification for social anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 76–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.06.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iacoviello, B. M., Wu, G., Abend, R., Murrough, J. W., Feder, A., Fruchter, E., … Charney, D. S. (2014). Attention bias variability and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27, 232–239. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Imel, Z. E., Laska, K., Jakupcak, M., & Simpson, T. L. (2013). Meta-analysis of dropout in treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81, 394–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031474.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, E. B., & Sharpe, L. (2017). Cognitive bias modification: A review of meta-analyses. Journal of Affective Disorders, 223, 175–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kadouri, A., Corruble, E., & Falissard, B. (2007). The improved clinical global impression scale (iCGI): Development and validation in depression. BMC Psychiatry, 7, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-7-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karatzias, A., Power, K., McGoldrick, T., Brown, K., Buchanan, R., Sharp, D., & Swanson, V (2007). Predicting treatment outcome on three measures for post-traumatic stress disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 257, 40–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-006-0682-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keane, T. M., Marshall, A. D., & Taft, C. T. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, epidemiology, and treatment outcome. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 161–197. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., Wai, T. C., Demler, O., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617–627. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraemer, H. C., Wilson, G. T., Fairburn, C. G., & Agras, W. S. (2002). Mediators and moderators of treatment effects in randomized clinical trials. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 877–883. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.59.10.877.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16, 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuckertz, J. M., Amir, N., Boffa, J. W., Warren, C. K., Rindt, S. E., Norman, S., … McLay, R. (2014). The effectiveness of an attention bias modification program as an adjunctive treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 63, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.09.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarov, A., Suarez-Jimenez, B., Abend, R., Naim, R., Shvil, E., Helpman, L., … Neria, Y. (2019). Bias-contingent attention bias modification and attention control training in treatment of PTSD: A randomized control trial. Psychological Medicine, 49, 2432–2440. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718003367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leon, A. C., Shear, M. K., Klerman, G. L., Portera, L., Rosenbaum, J. F., & Goldenberg, I. (1993). A comparison of symptom determinants of patient and clinician global ratings in patients with panic disorder and depression. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13, 327–331. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004714-199310000-00005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linetzky, M., Pergamin-Hight, L., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2015). Quantitative evaluation of the clinical efficacy of attention bias modification treatment for anxiety disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 32, 383–391. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linetzky, M., Pettit, J. W., Silverman, W. K., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2020). What drives symptom reduction in attention bias modification treatment? A randomized controlled experiment in clinically anxious youth. Clinical Psychological Science, 8, 506–518. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702620902130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, P., Wang, L., Cao, C., Wang, R., Zhang, J., Zhang, B., … Elhai, J. D. (2014). The underlying dimensions of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in an epidemiological sample of Chinese earthquake survivors. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28, 345–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.03.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacLeod, C., & Grafton, B. (2016). Anxiety-linked attentional bias and its modification: Illustrating the importance of distinguishing processes and procedures in experimental psychopathology research. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 86, 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.07.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNally, R. J., Enock, P. M., Tsai, C., & Tousian, M. (2013). Attention bias modification for reducing speech anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51, 882–888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2013.10.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mogg, K., Waters, A. M., & Bradley, B. P. (2017). Attention bias modification (ABM): Review of effects of multisession ABM training on anxiety and threat-related attention in high-anxious individuals. Clinical Psychological Science, 5, 698–717. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617696359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naim, R., Abend, R., Wald, I., Eldar, S., Levi, O., Fruchter, E., … Bar-Haim, Y. (2015). Threat-related attention bias variability and posttraumatic stress. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 1242–1250. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14121579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niles, A. N., Woolley, J. D., Tripp, P., Pesquita, A., Vinogradov, S., Neylan, T. C., … O'Donovan, A. (2020). Randomized controlled trial testing mobile-based attention-bias modification for posttraumatic stress using personalized word stimuli. Clinical Psychological Science, 8, 756–772. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702620902119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pergamin-Hight, L., Naim, R., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2015). Content specificity of attention bias to threat in anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 35, 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.10.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pergamin-Hight, L., Pine, D. S., Fox, N. A., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2016). Attention bias modification for youth with social anxiety disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 57, 1317–1325. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polak, A. R., Witteveen, A. B., Reitsma, J. B., & Olff, M. (2012). The role of executive function in posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 141, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posner, M. I., Snyder, C. R., & Solso, R.. (2004). Attention and cognitive control. In Balota, D. A., Marsh, E., & Marsh, E. J. (Eds.), Cognitive psychology: Key readings (pp. 205–223). New York, NY, USA: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, R. L., Arch, J. J., & Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B. (2015). The state of personalized treatment for anxiety disorders: A systematic review of treatment moderators. Clinical Psychology Review, 38, 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.02.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoorl, M., Putman, P., & Van Der Does, W. (2013). Attentional bias modification in posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82, 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1159/000341920.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoorl, M., Putman, P., Van Der Werff, S., & Van Der Does, A. J. W. (2014). Attentional bias and attentional control in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28, 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.10.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schottenbauer, M. A., Glass, C. R., Arnkoff, D. B., Tendick, V., & Gray, S. H. (2008). Nonresponse and dropout rates in outcome studies on PTSD: Review and methodological considerations. Psychiatry, 71, 134–168. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2008.71.2.134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Segal, A., Wald, I., Pine, D. S., Halpern, P., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2020). Attention control therapy for acute stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Depression and Anxiety, 37, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23040.Google ScholarPubMed
Shechner, T., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2016). Threat monitoring and attention-bias modification in anxiety and stress-related disorders. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25, 431–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416664341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swick, D., & Ashley, V. (2017). Enhanced attentional bias variability in post-traumatic stress disorder and its relationship to more general impairments in cognitive control. Scientific Reports, 7, 14559. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15226-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Minnen, A., Arntz, A., & Keijsers, G. P. J. (2002). Prolonged exposure in patients with chronic PTSD: Predictors of treatment outcome and dropout. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 439–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00024-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vens, M., & Ziegler, A. (2012). Generalized estimating equations and regression diagnostics for longitudinal controlled clinical trials: A case study. Computational Statistics and Data Analysis, 56, 1232–1242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csda.2011.04.010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wald, I., Fruchter, E., Ginat, K., Stolin, E., Dagan, D., Bliese, P. D., … Bar-Haim, Y. (2016). Selective prevention of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder using attention bias modification training: A randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 46, 2627–2636. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716000945.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2013a). The clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5). Retrieved from the National Center for PTSD at Retrieved from www.ptsd.va.gov, p. 6.Google Scholar
Weathers, F. W., Bovin, M. J., Lee, D. J., Sloan, D. M., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., … Marx, B. P. (2018). The clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation in military veterans. Psychological Assessment, 30, 383–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013b). The PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (pcl-5). Retrieved from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov, p. 10.Google Scholar
White, S. F., Costanzo, M. E., Blair, J. R., & Roy, M. J. (2015). PTSD Symptom severity is associated with increased recruitment of top-down attentional control in a trauma-exposed sample. NeuroImage: Clinical, 7, 19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2014.11.012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeger, S. L., & Liang, K.-Y. (1986). Longitudinal data analysis for discrete and continuous outcomes. Biometrics, 42, 121. https://doi.org/10.2307/2531248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeger, S. L., Liang, K.-Y., & Albert, P. S. (1988). Models for longitudinal data: A generalized estimating equation approach. Biometrics, 44, 1049. https://doi.org/10.2307/2531734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Segal et al. Supplementary Materials

Segal et al. Supplementary Materials

Download Segal et al. Supplementary Materials(File)
File 25.9 KB