Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-18T17:59:40.988Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Estimated verbal IQ and the odds of problem gambling: a population-based study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 September 2013

D. Rai ,
W. Hall ,
P. Bebbington ,
P. Skapinakis ,
A. Hassiotis ,
S. Weich ,
H. Meltzer ,
P. Moran ,
T. Brugha  and
A. Strydom
...Show all authors
D. Rai*
Affiliation:
Centre for Mental Health, Addiction and Suicide Research, School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, UK Avon and Wiltshire Partnership NHS Mental Health Trust, UK
W. Hall
Affiliation:
UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Queensland, Australia National Addiction Centre, King's College London, UK
P. Bebbington
Affiliation:
UCL Mental Health Sciences Unit, London, UK
P. Skapinakis
Affiliation:
Centre for Mental Health, Addiction and Suicide Research, School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, UK
A. Hassiotis
Affiliation:
UCL Mental Health Sciences Unit, London, UK
S. Weich
Affiliation:
Division of Mental Health and Wellbeing, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
H. Meltzer
Affiliation:
Department of Health Sciences, College of Medicine, Biological Sciences and Psychology, University of Leicester, UK
P. Moran
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
T. Brugha
Affiliation:
Department of Health Sciences, College of Medicine, Biological Sciences and Psychology, University of Leicester, UK
A. Strydom
Affiliation:
UCL Mental Health Sciences Unit, London, UK
M. Farrell
Affiliation:
National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Australia
*
* Address for correspondence: Dr D. Rai, Centre for Mental Health, Addiction and Suicide Research, School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, Clifton, Bristol BS8 2BN, UK. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

The neurocognitive deficits and other correlates of problem gambling are also observable in individuals with lower cognitive abilities, suggesting that a low IQ may be a determinant of problem gambling. There has been very little research into this possibility. This study aimed to investigate the characteristics associated with problem gambling in a large population-based study in England, with a particular focus on IQ.

Method

The Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey (APMS) 2007 comprised detailed interviews with 7403 individuals living in private households in England. Problem gambling was ascertained using a questionnaire based on DSM-IV criteria. Verbal IQ was estimated using the National Adult Reading Test (NART). Confounders included socio-economic and demographic factors, common mental disorders, impulsivity, smoking, and hazardous drug and alcohol use.

Results

More than two-thirds of the population reported engaging in some form of gambling in the previous year, but problem gambling was rare [prevalence 0.7%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.5–1.0]. The odds of problem gambling doubled with each standard deviation drop in estimated verbal IQ [adjusted odds ratio (OR) 2.1, 95% CI 1.3–3.4, p = 0.003], after adjusting for other characteristics associated with problem gambling including age, sex, socio-economic factors, drug and alcohol dependence, smoking, impulsivity and common mental disorders. There was no strong relationship observed between IQ and non-problem gambling.

Conclusions

People with lower IQs may be at a higher risk of problem gambling. Further work is required to replicate and study the mechanisms behind these findings, and may aid the understanding of problem gambling and inform preventative measures and interventions.

Keywords

Addictionepidemiologygamblingimpulse control disordersintelligenceIQ
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 44 , Issue 8 , June 2014 , pp. 1739 - 1749
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Afifi, TO, Cox, BJ, Martens, PJ, Sareen, J, Enns, MW (2010). Demographic and social variables associated with problem gambling among men and women in Canada. Psychiatry Research 178, 395–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ali, A, Ambler, G, Strydom, A, Rai, D, Cooper, C, McManus, S, Weich, S, Meltzer, H, Dein, S, Hassiotis, A (2013). The relationship between happiness and intelligent quotient: the contribution of socio-economic and clinical factors. Psychological Medicine 43, 1303–1312.Google Scholar
APA (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. DSM-IV-TR. American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Bakken, IJ, Gotestam, KG, Grawe, RW, Wenzel, HG, Oren, A (2009). Gambling behavior and gambling problems in Norway 2007. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 50, 333–339.Google Scholar
Bondolfi, G, Jermann, F, Ferrero, F, Zullino, D, Osiek, C (2008). Prevalence of pathological gambling in Switzerland after the opening of casinos and the introduction of new preventive legislation. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 117, 236–239.Google Scholar
Bowden-Jones, H, George, S (2011). Gambling addiction. British Medical Journal 343, d7789.Google ScholarPubMed
Brewer, JA, Potenza, MN, Desai, RA (2010). Differential associations between problem and pathological gambling and psychiatric disorders in individuals with and without alcohol abuse or dependence. CNS Spectrums 15, 33–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bright, P, Jaldow, E, Kopelman, MD (2002). The National Adult Reading Test as a measure of premorbid intelligence: a comparison with estimates derived from demographic variables. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 8, 847–854.Google Scholar
Cox, BJ, Yu, N, Afifi, TO, Ladouceur, R (2005). A national survey of gambling problems in Canada. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 50, 213–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, JR, Deary, IJ, Starr, J, Whalley, LJ (2001). The NART as an index of prior intellectual functioning: a retrospective validity study covering a 66-year interval. Psychological Medicine 31, 451–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dixon, MR, Marley, J, Jacobs, EA (2003). Delay discounting by pathological gamblers. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis 36, 449–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emond, A, Doerner, R, Griffiths, MD (2011). Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Gambling behaviour in adolescents aged 17 years: summary of findings (www.responsiblegamblingtrust.org.uk/PDFs/ALSPACfindings2011.pdf). Accessed 1 December 2012.Google Scholar
Forbush, KT, Shaw, M, Graeber, MA, Hovick, L, Meyer, VJ, Moser, DJ, Bayless, J, Watson, D, Black, DW (2008). Neuropsychological characteristics and personality traits in pathological gambling. CNS Spectrums 13, 306–315.Google Scholar
Gotestam, KG, Johansson, A (2003). Characteristics of gambling and problematic gambling in the Norwegian context: a DSM-IV-based telephone interview study. Addictive Behaviors 28, 189–197.Google Scholar
Goudriaan, AE, Oosterlaan, J, deBeurs, E, van den Brink, W (2004). Pathological gambling: a comprehensive review of biobehavioral findings. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 28, 123–141.Google Scholar
Goudriaan, AE, Oosterlaan, J, deBeurs, E, van den Brink, W (2005). Decision making in pathological gambling: a comparison between pathological gamblers, alcohol dependents, persons with Tourette syndrome, and normal controls. Cognitive Brain Research 23, 137–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goudriaan, AE, Oosterlaan, J, deBeurs, E, van den Brink, W (2006). Neurocognitive functions in pathological gambling: a comparison with alcohol dependence, Tourette syndrome and normal controls. Addiction 101, 534–547.Google Scholar
Kaare, PR, Mottus, R, Konstabel, K (2009). Pathological gambling in Estonia: relationships with personality, self-esteem, emotional states and cognitive ability. Journal of Gambling Studies 25, 377–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC, Hwang, I, LaBrie, R, Petukhova, M, Sampson, NA, Winters, KC, Shaffer, HJ (2008). DSM-IV pathological gambling in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Psychological Medicine 38, 1351–1360.Google Scholar
Lewis, G, Pelosi, AJ, Araya, R, Dunn, G (1992). Measuring psychiatric disorder in the community: a standardized assessment for use by lay interviewers. Psychological Medicine 22, 465–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lobbestael, J, Leurgans, M, Arntz, A (2011). Inter-rater reliability of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID I) and Axis II Disorders (SCID II). Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 18, 75–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorains, FK, Cowlishaw, S, Thomas, SA (2011). Prevalence of comorbid disorders in problem and pathological gambling: systematic review and meta-analysis of population surveys. Addiction 106, 490–498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lubinski, D (2009). Cognitive epidemiology: with emphasis on untangling cognitive ability and socioeconomic status. Intelligence 37, 625–633.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malgady, RG, Rogler, LH, Tryon, WW (1992). Issues of validity in the Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Journal of Psychiatric Research 26, 59–67.Google Scholar
Mathias, JL, Bowden, SC, Barrett-Woodbridge, M (2007). Accuracy of the Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR) and National Adult Reading Test (NART) when estimating IQ in a healthy Australian sample. Australian Psychologist 42, 49–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McManus, S, Meltzer, H, Brugha, T, Bebbington, P, Jenkins, R (eds) (2009). Adult Psychiatric Morbidity in England 2007: Results of a Household Survey. The NHS Information Centre: Leeds, UK.Google Scholar
Morasco, BJ, Petry, NM (2006). Gambling problems and health functioning in individuals receiving disability. Disability and Rehabilitation 28, 619–623.Google Scholar
Nelson, HE (1991). National Adult Reading Test (NART). NFER-NELSON: Windsor.Google Scholar
Petry, NM, Stinson, FS, Grant, BF (2005). Comorbidity of DSM-IV pathological gambling and other psychiatric disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 66, 564–574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reith, G (2006). Research on the Social Impacts of Gambling. Scottish Executive Social Research (ScotCen), Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Saunders, JB, Aasland, OG, Babor, TF, de la Fuente, JR, Grant, M (1993). Development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO Collaborative Project on Early Detection of Persons with Harmful Alcohol Consumption – II. Addiction 88, 791–804.Google Scholar
Shaffer, HJ, Martin, R (2011). Disordered gambling: etiology, trajectory, and clinical considerations. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 7, 483–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shamosh, NA, Deyoung, CG, Green, AE, Reis, DL, Johnson, MR, Conway, AR, Engle, RW, Braver, TS, Gray, JR (2008). Individual differences in delay discounting: relation to intelligence, working memory, and anterior prefrontal cortex. Psychological Science 19, 904–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spinks, R, McKirgan, LW, Arndt, S, Caspers, K, Yucuis, R, Pfalzgraf, CJ (2009). IQ estimate smackdown: comparing IQ proxy measures to the WAIS-III. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 15, 590–596.Google Scholar
Stockwell, T, Sitharthan, T, McGrath, D, Lang, E (1994). The measurement of alcohol dependence and impaired control in community samples. Addiction 89, 167–174.Google Scholar
Tavares, H, Carneiro, E, Sanches, M, Pinsky, I, Caetano, R, Zaleski, M, Laranjeira, R (2010). Gambling in Brazil: lifetime prevalences and socio-demographic correlates. Psychiatry Research 180, 35–41.Google Scholar
Tourangeau, R, Rips, LJ, Rasinski, KA (2000). The Psychology of Survey Response. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, U.K.Google Scholar
Verdejo-Garcia, A, Lawrence, AJ, Clark, L (2008). Impulsivity as a vulnerability marker for substance-use disorders: review of findings from high-risk research, problem gamblers and genetic association studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 32, 777–810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Victorian Competition and Efficiency Commission (2012). Counting the Cost: Inquiry into the Costs of Problem Gambling: a draft report for further consultation and input. Victorian Competition and Efficiency Commission: Melbourne.Google Scholar
Walker, DM (2007). Problems in quantifying the social costs and benefits of gambling. American Journal of Economics and Sociology 66, 609–645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wardle, H, Moody, A, Spence, S, Orford, J, Volberg, R, Jotangia, D, Griffiths, M, Hussey, D, Dobbie, F; National Centre for Social Research, Gambling Commission (2011). British Gambling Prevalence Survey 2010. National Centre for Social Research. The Stationery Office: London.Google Scholar
Welte, JW, Barnes, GM, Wieczorek, WF, Tidwell, MC, Parker, JC (2004). Risk factors for pathological gambling. Addictive Behaviors 29, 323–335.Google Scholar
WHO (1993). The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Diagnostic Criteria for Research. World Health Organization: Geneva.Google Scholar
Xian, H, Shah, KR, Phillips, SM, Scherrer, JF, Volberg, R, Eisen, SA (2008). Association of cognitive distortions with problem and pathological gambling in adult male twins. Psychiatry Research 160, 300–307.Google Scholar