Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T21:39:01.731Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Drug response and psychiatric nosology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2009

Robin M. Murray  and
Dennis L. Murphy
Robin M. Murray*
Affiliation:
Clinical Neuropharmacology Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
Dennis L. Murphy
Affiliation:
Clinical Neuropharmacology Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
*
1Address for correspondence: Dr Robin Murray, Maudsley Hospital, Denmark Hill London SE5 8AZ.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Synopsis

The possibility that pharmacological response might help to refine psychiatric nosology has been the subject of recurrent speculation, but few clear-cut results have been obtained. Only bipolar depressives and several other minor patient subgroups manifest consistent drug responses in association with characteristic psychobiological features. The presence of multiple intervening variables, such as individual differences in drug metabolism, drug-taking behaviour and biological sensitivity to drugs, may mitigate against the reliable identification of clinically distinguishable drugresponding subgroups. Furthermore, the majority of available psychoactive drugs have either multiple or broad spectrum effects inconsistent with hypotheses utilizing the mechanism or site of drug action to argue for a diagnosis-specific biological disorder at such sites.

Nonetheless the successful use of drug-response models in other areas of medicine suggests a rationale for continued exploration in this area, and a number of recent advances make this approach potentially more productive. Pharmacological developments have rendered it possible to assess the biological availability of drugs in potential responders, thus eliminating some of the confounding intervening variables. Further consideration should also be given to the use of drugs with more specific neurochemical effects, even when they themselves are not necessarily therapeutic. The comparison of drug responder and non-responder groups has also been made more meaningful by the availability of more reliable methods of assessing clinical phenomena, more sophisticated diagnostic models and the introduction of other biological measures. Combining several of these approaches may allow the use of one to validate the other.

Type
Research Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 8 , Issue 4 , November 1978 , pp. 667 - 681
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1978

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ablon, S. & Goodwin, F. K. (1974). High frequency of dysphoric reactions to tetrahydrocannabinol among depressed patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 131, 448–453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abrams, R. & Taylor, M. A. (1974). Unipolar and bipolardopamine illness. Phenomenology and response to electroconvulsive therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry 30, 320–321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, P. S., Rose, D. P., Folkard, J., Wynn, V., Seed, M. & Strong, R. (1973). Effect of pyridoxine hydrochloride upon depression associated with oral contraception. Lancet i, 897–904.Google Scholar
Alexanderson, B., Sjöqvist, F. & Price-Evans, D. A. (1969). Steady state plasma levels of nortriptyline in twins. British Medical Journal iv, 764–768.Google Scholar
Angst, J. (1961). A clinical analysis of the effects of Tofranil in depression. Psychopharmacologia 2, 381–407.Google Scholar
Åsberg, M., Cronholm, B., Sjöqvist, F. & Tuck, D. (1971). Relationship between plasma level and therapeutic effect of nortriptyline. British Medical Journal iii, 331–334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Åsberg, M., Bertilsson, L., Tuck, D., Cronholm, B. & Sjöqvist, S. (1973). Indoleamine metabolites in the CSF of depressed patients before and during treatment with nortriptyline. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 14, 277–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldessarini, R. J. (1970). Frequency of diagnosis of schizophrenia versus affective disorders from 1944 to 1968. American Journal of Psychiatry 127, 759–763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bates, T. J. N. & Douglas, A. A. McL. (1961). A comparative trial of four monoamine oxidase inhibitors on chronic depressives. Journal of Mental Science 107, 538–542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A. (1962). Reliability of psychiatric diagnosis. American Journal of Psychiatry 19, 210–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckmann, H. & Goodwin, F. K. (1975). Antidepressant responses to tricyclics and urinary MHPG in unipolar patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 32, 17–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beigel, A. & Murphy, D. L. (1971). Unipolar and bipolar affective illness. American Journal of Psychiatry 128, 688–694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bielski, R. J. & Friedel, R. O. (1976). Prediction of tricyclic antidepressant response. Archives of General Psychiatry 33, 1479–1489.Google Scholar
Blackwell, B. (1976). Treatment adherence. British Journal of Psychiatry 128, 513–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blashfield, R. K. & Draguuns, J. G. (1976). Toward a taxonomy of psychopathology British Journal of Psychiatry 129, 574–583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blass, J. P., Milne, J. F. & Rodnight, R. (1977). Newer concepts of psychiatric diagnosis and biochemical research on mental illness. Lancet i, 738–740.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockington, I. F. (1976). Presented at the July Quarterly Meeting of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, London.Google Scholar
Brown, S., Forrest, J. A. H. & Roscoe, P. (1972). A controlled trial of fructose in the treatment of acute alcoholic intoxication. Lancet ii, 898–899.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchsbaum, M., Goodwin, F. K., Murphy, D. L. & Borge, G. (1971). Average evoked response in affective disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 128, 19–25.Google Scholar
Bunney, W. E. Jr & Murphy, D. L. (1975). Pre- and Post-Synaptic Receptors. Marcel Dekker: New York.Google Scholar
Bunney, W. E. Jr, Brodie, H. K. H., Murphy, D. L. & Goodwin, F. K. (1970). Psychopharmacological differentiation between two subgroups of depressed patients.Proceedings of the American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Bunney, W. E. Jr, Goodwin, F. K., Murphy, D. L., House, K. M. & Gordon, E. K. (1972). The switch process in manic-depressive illness. II. Archives of General Psychiatry 27, 304–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carroll, B. J., Curtis, G. C. & Mendels, J. (1976). Neuroendocrine regulation in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 33, 1051–1058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, J. O. & Stotsky, B. A. (1974). Improving psychiatric drug therapy. Geriatrics 29, 74–78.Google Scholar
Cookson, J. & Silverstone, T. (1976). 5-Hydroxytryptamine and dopamine pathways in mania. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 3. 942–943.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, J. E., Kendell, R. E., Gurland, B. J., Sharpe, L., Copeland, J. R. M. & Simon, R. (1972). Psychiatric Diagnosis in New York and London. Oxford University Press: London.Google Scholar
Cowdry, R. W. & Goodwin, F. K. (1978). Amine neurotransmitter studies and psychiatric illness: toward more meaningful diagnostic concepts. In Current Issues in Psychiatric Diagnosis (ed. Spitzer, R.). Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
Dally, P. J. & Rohde, P. (1961). Comparison of antidepressant drugs in depressive illness. Lancet i, 18–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donnelly, E. F., Murphy, D. L., Waldman, I. N. & Goodwin, F. K. (1978). Prediction of antidepressant responses to lithium. American Journal of Psychiatry (in the press).Google Scholar
Dunleavy, D. L. F. & Oswald, C. (1973). Phenelzine, mood response and sleep. British Journal of Psychiatry 28, 353–356.Google ScholarPubMed
Dunner, D. L., Fleiss, J. L. & Fieve, R. R. (1976). Lithium carbonate prophylaxis failure. British Journal of Psychiatry 129, 40–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliott, R. W. (1973). Drug Resistance and Selectivity. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Everitt, D. S., Gourlay, A. J. & Kendell, R. E. (1971). An attempt at validation of traditional psychiatric syndromes by cluster analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry 119, 399–412.Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The Biological Basis of Personality. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Ill.Google Scholar
Farkas, T., Dunner, D. L. & Fieve, R. R. (1976). L-Tryptophan in depression. Biological Psychiatry 11, 295–302.Google ScholarPubMed
Fawcett, J. & Siomopoulous, V. (1971). Dextroamphetamine response as a possible predictor of improvement with tricyclic therapy in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 25, 247–255.Google Scholar
Fawcett, J., Maas, J. W. & Dekirmenjian, H. (1972). Depression and MHPG excretion. Archives of General Psychiatry 26, 246–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feighner, J. P., Robins, E., Guze, S. B., Woodruff, R. A., Winokur, G. & Munoz, R. (1972). Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Archives of General Psychiatry 26, 57–63.Google Scholar
Fink, M. (1977). EEG response strategies in psychiatric diagnosis. Presented at the American Psychopathological Association.Google Scholar
Freeman, J. M., Finkelstein, J. D. & Mudd, S. H. (1975). Folate responsive homocystinuria and ‘schizophrenia’. New England Journal of Medicine 292, 491–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freyhan, F. A. (1965). Dynamics and significance of psychopharmacological intervention in psychiatry. In Neuropsychopharmacology vol. 4 (ed. Bente, D. and Bradley, P. B.), pp. 249–254. Elsevier: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Galbrecht, C. R. & Klett, C. J. (1968). Predicting response to phenothiazines. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 147, 173–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gershon, S., Angrist, B. & Shopsin, B. (1975). Drugs, diagnosis and disease. In Biology of the Major Psychoses (ed. Freedman, D. X.), pp. 85–96. Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
Glassman, A. H., Kantor, S. J. & Shostak, M. (1975). Depression, delusions and drug response. American Journal of Psychiatry 132, 716–722.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, S. C. & Mattson, N. (1968). Schizophrenic subtypes defined by response to drugs and placebo. Diseases of the Nervous System 29, 153–159.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, S. C., Klerman, G. L. & Cole, J. D. (1965). Changes in schizophrenic psychopathology and ward behaviour as a function of treatment with phenothiazines. British Journal of Psychiatry 111, 120–133.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S. C., Mattson, N., Cole, J. O. & Klerman, G. L. (1967). Prediction of improvement in schizophrenia under four phenothiazines. Archives of General Psychiatry 16, 107–117.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S. C., Frosch, W. A., Drossman, A. K., Schooler, N. R. & Johnson, G. F. S. (1972). Prediction of response to phenothiazines in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 26, 367–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, S. C., Schooler, N. R. & Hogarty, G. K. (1977). Prediction of relapse in schizophrenic outpatients treated by drug and sociotherapy. Archives of General Psychiatry 34, 171–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, M. J. (1970). Premorbid adjustment, paranoid status and patterns of response to phenothiazine in acute schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 3, 24–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodwin, F. K., Murphy, D. L., Brodie, H. K. H. & Bunney, W. E. Jr (1970). L-Dopa, catecholamines and behaviour: a clincial and biochemical study in depressed patients. Biological Psychiatry 2, 341–366.Google Scholar
Goodwin, F. K., Murphy, D. L., Dunner, D. L. & Bunney, W. E. Jr (1972). Lithium response in unipolar versus bipolar depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 129, 44–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodwin, F. K., Post, R. M., Dunner, D. L. & Gordon, E. K. (1973). Cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolism in affective illness. American Journal of Psychiatry 130, 73–79.Google Scholar
Gottschalk, L. A. & Merlis, S. (eds). (1976). Pharmacokinetics of Psychoactive Drugs. Spectrum Publications: New York.Google Scholar
Granacher, R. P. & Baldessarini, R. J. (1975). Physostigmine; its use in acute anticholinergic syndrome with antidepressant and antiparkinson drugs. Archives of General Psychiatry 32, 375–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helzer, J. E., Robins, L. N., Taibleson, M., Woodruff, R. A., Reich, T. & Wish, E. D. (1977). Reliability of psychiatric diagnosis I and II. Archives of General Psychiatry 34, 129–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollister, L. E. (1973). Clinical Use of Psychotherapeutic Drugs. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Ill.Google ScholarPubMed
Hollister, L. E., Overall, J. E., Kimbell, I. & Pokorny, A. (1974). Specific indications for different classes of phenothiazines. Archives of General Psychiatry 30, 94–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hordern, A., Holt, N. F., Burt, C. G. & Cade, S. F. J. (1965). Depressive States: A Pharmacotherapeutic Study. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Ill.Google Scholar
House, K. M. & Martin, R. L. (1975). MMPI delineation of a subgroup of depressed patients refractory to lithium carbonate therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry 132, 644–646.Google Scholar
Johnson, F. N. (1975). Lithium Research and Therapy. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Johnson, G., Gershon, S. & Hekimian, L. L. (1968). Controlled evaluation of lithium and chlorpromazine in the treatment of manic states. Comprehensive Psychiatry 9, 563–573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, G. S., Gershon, E., Burdock, E. I., Floyd, A. & Hekimian, L. L. (1971). Comparative effects of lithium and chlorpromazine in the treatment of acute manic states. British Journal of Psychiatry 119, 267–276.Google Scholar
Johnstone, E. C. & Marsh, W. (1973). Acetylator status and response to phenelzine in depressed patients. Lancet i, 567–570.Google Scholar
Judd, L. L., Hubbard, B., Janowski, D. S., Huey, L. Y. & Attenhill, P. A. (1977). The effect of lithium carbonate on affect, mood and personality of normal subjects. Archives of General Psychiatry 34, 346–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karczmar, A. G. & Scudder, C. L. (1967). Behaviour responses to drugs and brain catecholeamine levels in mice. Federation Proceedings: Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 26, 1186–1191.Google Scholar
Kellagher, M. J. (1975). A prospective study of post-graduate training in psychiatry on the rating of mental abnormality. British Journal of Psychiatry 126, 160–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendell, R. E. (1975). The Role of Diagnosis in Psychiatry. Blackwell Press: London.Google Scholar
Kerry, R. J. & Orme, J. E. (1977). Imipramine and depression. British Journal of Psychiatry 130, 199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, D. F. (1964). Delineation of two drug-responsive anxiety syndromes. Psychopharmacologia 5, 397–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, D. F. (1967). Importance of psychiatric diagnosis in prediction of clinical drug effects. Archives of General Psychiatry 16, 118–126.Google Scholar
Klein, D. F. (1968). Psychiatric diagnosis and typology of clinical drug effects. Psychopharmacologia 13, 359–386.Google Scholar
Klein, D. F. & Davis, J. M. (1969). Diagnosis and Drug Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders. Williams and Wilkins: Baltimore.Google Scholar
Klein, D. F., Honigfeld, G. & Feldman, S. (1973). Prediction of drug effect in personality disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 156, 183–197.Google Scholar
Kline, N. S., Li, Ch., Lehmann, H. E., Lajtha, A., Laski, E. & Cooper, T. (1977). β-Endorphin-induced changes in schizophrenic and depressed patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 34, 1111–1118.Google Scholar
Koran, L. (1975). The reliability of clinical methods, data and judgements. New England Journal of Medicine 293, 642–701.Google Scholar
Kornetsky, C. & Mirsky, A. F. (1966). On certain pharmacological and physiological differences between schizophrenics and normal persons. Psychopharmacologia 8, 309–318.Google Scholar
Kragh-Sorenson, P., Hansen, C. E. & Åsberg, M. (1973). Plasma levels of nortriptyline in the treatment of endogenous depression. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 49, 445–456.Google Scholar
Kreitman, N. (1961). The reliability of psychiatric diagnosis. Journal of Mental Science 107, 876–886.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuriansky, J. B., Gurland, B. J., Spitzer, R. & Endicott, J. (1977). Trends in the frequency of schizophrenia by different diagnostic criteria. American Journal of Psychiatry 134, 631–636.Google ScholarPubMed
Leff, J. P. & Wing, J. K. (1971). Trial of maintenance therapy in schizophrenia. British Medical Journal iii, 599–604.Google Scholar
Maas, J. W., Fawcett, J. A. & Dekirmenjian, H. (1972). Catecholeamine metabolism, depressive illness and drug response. Archives of General Psychiatry 26, 252–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, P. R. & Goldberg, S. C. (1977). Prediction of schizophrenic patients' response to pharmacotherapy. In Psychopharmacology: a Generation of Progress (ed. Lipton, M. A., Dimascio, A. and Killam, K. F.), pp. 1139–1154. Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
May, P. R. & Wittenborn, J. R. (1969). Psychotropic Drug Response. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Ill.Google Scholar
May, P. R., van Putten, T., Yale, C., Potepan, P., Jenden, D., Mahlon, D., Fairchild, M., Goldstein, M. J. & Dixon, W. J. (1976). Predicting individual responses to drug treatment in schizophrenia: a test dose model. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 162, 177–183.Google Scholar
McGauch, J. L., Westbrook, W. H. & Burt, G. J. (1961). Strain differences in the facilitative effects of 1757 I.S. on maze learning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 54, 502–505.Google Scholar
Medical Research Council (1965). Clinical trial of the treatment of depressive illness. British Medical Journal i, 881–886.Google Scholar
Medical Research Council (1972). Modified amine hypothesis for the aetiology of affective illness. Lancet ii, 573–577.Google Scholar
Mendelewiez, J., Fieve, R. & Stallone, F. (1973). Relationship between the effectiveness of lithium therapy and family history. American Journal of Psychiatry 130, 1011–1013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendelewiez, J., Fleiss, J. L. & Fieve, R. R. (1975). Genetic Research in Psychiatry. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore.Google Scholar
Mendels, J. (1975). Lithium Research and Therapy. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Mendels, J. (1976). Lithium in the treatment of depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 133, 373–378.Google Scholar
Mendels, J. & Frazer, A. (1973). Intracellular lithium and clinical response. Journal of Psychiatric Research 10, 9–18.Google Scholar
Mendels, J., Secunda, S. K. & Dyson, W. L. (1972). A controlled study of the antidepressant effects of lithium carbonate. Archives of General Psychiatry 26, 154–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendels, J., Stinnett, J. L., Burns, D. & Frazer, A. (1975). Amine precursors and depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 32, 23–33.Google Scholar
Menninger, K. (1963). The Vital Balance: the Life Process in Mental Health and Illness. Viking Press: New York.Google Scholar
Merry, J. & Marks, V. (1969). Plasma-hydrocortisone response to ethanol in chronic alcoholics. Lancet i, 921–923.Google Scholar
Misra, P. C. & Burns, B. H. (1977). ‘Lithium non-responders’ in a lithium clinic. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 55, 32–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mountjoy, C. Q., Roth, M., Garside, R. F. & Leitch, I. M. (1977). A clinical trial of phenelzine in anxiety depressive and phobic neuroses. British Journal of Psychiatry 131, 486–492.Google Scholar
Murphy, D. L. (1972). Neurotransmitters. Research Publications, Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disorders, No. 50, pp. 472–493.Google Scholar
Murphy, D. L. (1977). The behavioural toxicity of monoamine oxidase inhibiting antidepressants. Advances in Pharmacology and Chemotherapy 14, 71–105.Google Scholar
Murphy, D. L. & Beigel, A. (1974). Depression, elation, and lithium carbonate responses in manic patient subgroups. Archives of General Psychiatry 31, 643–648.Google Scholar
Murphy, D. L. & Buchsbaum, M. (1978). Neurotransmitterrelated enzymes and psychiatric diagnostic entities. In Current Issues in Psychiatric Diagnosis (ed. Spitzer, R.). Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
Murphy, D. L. & Weiss, R. (1972). Reduced MAO activity in blood platelets from bipolar depressed patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 128, 1351–1357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, D. L. & Wyatt, R. J. (1975). Enzyme studies in the major psychiatric disorders. In The Biology of the Major Psychoses: a Comparative Analysis (ed. Freedman, D. X.), pp. 277–288. Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
Murphy, D. L., Brodie, H. K. H., Goodwin, F. K. & Bunney, W. E. Jr (1971). L-Dopa: regular induction of hypomania in bipolar manic-depressive patients. Nature 229, 135–136.Google Scholar
Murphy, D. L., Goodwin, F. K., Brodie, H. K. H. & Bunney, W. E. Jr (1973). L-Dopa, dopamine and hypomania. American Journal of Psychiatry 130, 79–82.Google Scholar
Murphy, D. L., Baker, M., Goodwin, F. K., Miller, H., Kotin, J. & Bunney, W. E. Jr (1974). L-Tryptophan in affective disorders. Indoleamine changes and differential clinical effects. Psychopharmacologia 34, 11–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, D. L., Slater, S., de la Vega, E., Lipper, S. & Costa, J. L. (1978). A preliminary evaluation of the effects of fenfluramine in bipolar and unipolar depressed patients. Psychopharmacology Communications (in the press).Google Scholar
Naylor, G. J., Dick, D. A. T. & Dick, E. G. (1976). Erythrocyte membrane cation carrier, relapse rate of manicdepressive illness and response to lithium. Psychological Medicine 6, 257–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NIMH–PRB Collaborative Study Group (1967). Difference in clinical effects of three phenothiazines in ‘acute’ schizophrenia. Diseases of the Nervous System 28, 369–383.Google Scholar
Overall, J. E., Hollister, L. E., Johnson, M. & Pennington, V. (1966). Nosology of depression and differential response to drugs. Journal of the American Medical Association 195, 946–948.Google Scholar
Pare, C. (1970). Differentiation of two genetically specific types of depression by the response to antidepressant drugs. Humangenetik 9, 199–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, E. S. (1971). Classification of depressed patients: a cluster analysis derived grouping. British Journal of Psychiatry 118, 275–288.Google Scholar
Paykel, E. S. (1972). Depressive typologies and response to amitryptiline. British Journal of Psychiatry 120, 147–156.Google Scholar
Pearce, J. B. (1973). Fenfluramine in mania. Lancet i, 427.Google Scholar
Perris, C. (1966). A survey of bipolar and unipolar recurrent depressive psychoses. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 42 (Suppl. 194), 1–188.Google Scholar
Price-Evans, D. A., Davison, K. & Pratt, R. T. C. (1964). The influence of acetylator phenotype on the effects of treating depression with phenelzine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 6, 430–435.Google Scholar
Prien, R. F., Klett, C. J. & Caffey, E. M. Jr (1974). Lithium prophylaxis in recurrent affective illness. American Journal of Psychiatry 131, 198–203.Google Scholar
Procci, W. R. (1976). Schizoaffective psychosis: fact or fiction. Archives of General Psychiatry 33, 1167–1182.Google Scholar
Rakoff, V. M., Stancer, H. C. & Kedward, H. B. (eds.) (1977). Psychiatric Diagnosis. Brunner/Mazel: New York.Google Scholar
Randrup, A. & Munkvad, I. (1972). Evidence indicating an association between schizophrenia and dopaminergic hyperactivity in the brain. Orthomolecular Psychiatry 1, 2–7.Google Scholar
Raskin, A., Schulterbrandt, J. G., Reatig, N. & McKeon, J. J. (1970). Differentiated response to chlorpromazine, imipramine and placebo. Archives of General Psychiatry 23, 164–173.Google Scholar
Raskin, A., Schulterbrandt, J. G., Reatig, N., Crook, T. H. & Odle, D. (1974). Depression subtypes and response to phenelzine, diazepam and placebo. Archives of General Psychiatry 30, 66–75.Google Scholar
Reitan, R. M. (1977). Neuropsychological concepts and psychiatric diagnosis. In Psychiatric Diagnosis (ed. Rakoff, V. M., Stancer, H. C., and Kedward, H. B.), pp. 42–68. Brunner/Mazel: New York.Google Scholar
Rickels, K. (1968). Non-Specific Factors in Drug Therapy. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Ill.Google Scholar
Rickels, K., Ward, C. H. & Schut, L. (1964). Different populations, different drug responses. American Journal of the Medical Sciences 247, 328–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rickels, K., Gordon, P. E., Jenkins, B. W., Perloff, M., Sachs, T. & Stepansky, W. (1970). Drug treatment in depressive illness. Diseases of the Nervous System 31, 30–42.Google Scholar
Rickels, K., Csanalosi, I., Chung, H. R., Case, W. G., Pereira-Ogan, J. A. & Downing, R. W. (1974). Amitriptyline in anxious-depressed outpatients: a controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry 131, 25–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rivera-Calimlim, L., Castaneda, L. & Lasagna, L. (1973). Effects of mode of management on plasma chlorpromazine in psychiatric patients. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 14, 978–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rivera-Calimlim, L., Nasrallah, H., Strauss, J. & Lasagna, L. (1976). Clinical response and plasma levels: effects of dose, dosage schedules, and drug interactions of plasma chlorpromazine levels. American Journal of Psychiatry 133, 646–652.Google Scholar
Robin, A. A. & Langley, G. E. (1964). A controlled trial of imipramine. British Journal of Psychiatry 110, 419–422.Google Scholar
Robinson, D. S. & Nies, A. (1975). The efficacy of the monoamine oxidase inhibitor, phenelzine.Neuropsychopharmacology, Proceedings of the IX Congress of the Collegium Internationale Neuropsychopharmacologicum (ed. Boissier, J. R., Hippius, H., and Pichot, P.), pp. 57–64. Elsevier: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Robinson, D. S., Nies, A., Ravaris, C. L. & Lamborn, K. (1973). The monoamine oxidase inhibitor, phenelzine, in the treatment of depressive anxiety states. Archives of General Psychiatry 29, 407–413.Google Scholar
Rodnight, R., Murray, R., Oon, M., Brockington, I. & Birley, J. L. T. (1976). Urinary DMT and psychiatric symptomatology. Psycholog!cal Medicine 6, 649–658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenthal, D. (1974). The concept of subschizophrenic disorders. In Genetics, Environment and Psychopathology (ed. Mednick, S. A., Schulsinger, F., Higgins, J. and Bell, B.), pp. 167–176. North-Holland: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Roth, M., Gurney, C., Mountjoy, C. Q., Kerr, T. A. & Schapira, K. (1976). The relationship between classification and response to drugs in affective disorders. In Monoamine Oxidase and Its Inhibition. CIBA Foundation Symposium No. 39, pp. 297–318. Elsevier: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Sakurai, Y., Nakahara, T. & Takahashi, R. (1975). Prediction of response to chlorpromazine treatment in schizophrenics. Psychopharmacologia 44, 195–203.Google Scholar
Schildkraut, J. J. (1973). Norepinephrine metabolites as biochemical criteria for clarifying depressive disorders and predicting response to treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 130, 695–699.Google Scholar
Schooler, N. R., Bothe, H. & Goldberg, S. C. (1971). Life history and symptoms in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 25, 138–148.Google Scholar
Schooler, N. R., Sakalis, G., Chan, T. L., Gershon, S. C. & Collins, P. (1976). Chlorpromazine metabolism and clinical response in acute schizophrenia. In Pharmacokinetics of Psychoactive Drugs (ed. Gottschalk, L. and Merlis, K.), pp. 199–220. Brunner/Mazel: New York.Google Scholar
Schou, M. (1968). Lithium in psychiatric therapy and prophylaxis. Journal of Psychiatric Research 6, 67–95.Google Scholar
Schou, M., Juel-Neilson, N., Strömgren, E. and Voldby, H. (1954). Treatment of manic psychoses by the administration of lithium salts. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 17, 250–260.Google Scholar
Sheard, M. H., Marini, J. L. & Bridges, C. I. (1976). The effect of lithium on impulsive aggressive behaviour in man. American Journal of Psychiatry 133, 1409–1413.Google Scholar
Shepherd, M. (1972). The classification of psychotropic drugs. Psychological Medicine 2, 96–110.Google Scholar
Shepherd, M. (1976). Definition, classification and nomenclature: a clinical overview. In Schizophrenia Today (ed. Kemali, D., Bartholini, G. and Richter, D.), pp. 3–12. Pergamon Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
Simpson, G. M., Lee, J. H., Caculi, Z. & Kelher, R. (1976). Two doses of imipramine in hospitalized endogenous and neurotic depressives. Archives of General Psychiatry 33, 1093–1097.Google Scholar
Singer, M. (1977). Presented at the American Psychopathological Association, New York.Google Scholar
Sjöqvist, F. (1971). A pharmacokinetic approach to the treatment of depression. International Pharmacopsychiatry 6, 147–169.Google Scholar
Smith, S. E. & Rawlins, M. D. (1973). Variability in Human Drug Response. Butterworth: London.Google Scholar
Snyder, S. H., Bannerjee, S. P., Yamamura, H. I. & Greenburg, D. (1974). Drugs, neurotransmitters and schizophrenia. Science 184, 1243–1253.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L. (ed). (1978). Current Issues in Psychiatric Diagnosis. Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L. & Endicott, J. (1977). Schedule for Affective Disorder and Schizophrenia. Psychiatric Institute: New York.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Endicott, J. & Robins, E. (1975). Research diagnostic criteria. New York State Psychiatric Institute. Biometrics Research.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Sheehy, M. & Endicott, J. (1977). DSM III: guiding principles. In Psychiatric Diagnosis (ed. Rakoff, V. M., Stancer, H. C. and Kedward, H. B.), pp. 1–24. Brunner/Mazel: New York.Google Scholar
Steinbrook, R. M. & Chapman, A. B. (1970). Lithium responders: an evaluation of psychological test characteristics. Comparative Psychiatry 11, 524–530.Google Scholar
Taylor, M. A. & Abrams, R. (1975). Clinical and genetic study of responders and non-responders to treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 32, 863–865.Google Scholar
Tyrer, P. (1976). Towards rational therapy with monoamine oxidase inhibitors. British Journal of Psychiatry 128, 354–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrer, P., Candy, J. & Kelly, D. (1973). Phenelzine in phobic anxiety: a controlled trial. Psychological Medicine 3, 120–124.Google Scholar
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (1976). Federal Register.Google Scholar
van Kammen, D. P. & Murphy, D. L. (1975). Alteration of the effects of amphetamine by lithium carbonate. Psychopharmacologia 44, 215–224.Google Scholar
van Kammen, D. P. & Murphy, D. L. (1979). (In preparation).Google Scholar
van Praag, H. M. (1977). Biological factors in the diagnosis and treatment of depression. In Psychiatric Diagnosis (ed. Rakoff, V. M., Stancer, H. C. and Kedward, H. B.), pp. 153–188. Brunner/Mazel: New York.Google Scholar
van Praag, H. M. & Korf, J. (1976). Importance of dopamine metabolism for the clinical effects and side effects of neuroleptics. American Journal of Psychiatry 133, 1171–1176.Google Scholar
van Putten, T. V., Crumpton, E. & Yale, C. (1976). Drug refusal in schizophrenia and the wish to be crazy. Archives of General Psychiatry 33, 1443–1447.Google Scholar
Vaughn, C. E. & Leff, J. P. (1976). The influence of family and social factors on the course of psychiatric illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 129, 125–137.Google Scholar
Vessell, S. S. (1971). Genetic control of drug levels and of the induction of drug metabolizing enzymes in man. Annals of the New York Academy of the Sciences 179, 752–772.Google Scholar
Wender, P. H. (1977). The scope and validity of the schizophrenia spectrum concept. In Psychiatric Diagnosis (ed. Rakoff, V. M., Stancer, H. C. and Kedward, H. B.), pp. 109–127. Brunner/Mazel: New York.Google Scholar
Wing, J. K., Cooper, J. E. & Sartorius, N. (1974). Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms. Cambridge University Press: London.Google Scholar
Wittenborn, J. R. (1969). Psychotropic Drug Response. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Ill.Google Scholar
Wittenborn, J. R. and May, P. (eds.) (1966). Prediction of Response to Pharmacotherapy. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Ill.Google Scholar
Wittenborn, J. R. & Kiremitici, N. (1975). A comparison of antidepressant indications in neurotic and psychotic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 32, 1172–1177.Google Scholar
Wittenborn, J. R., Goldberg, S. C. & May, P. (1968). Psychopharmacology and the Individual Patient. Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1973). Report of the International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia vol. 1. WHO: Geneva.Google Scholar
Wyatt, R. J. & Torgow, J. S. (1976). A comparison of equivalent potencies of neuroleptics as used to treat schizophrenia and affective disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research 13, 91–98.Google Scholar
Zubin, J. (1973). Discussion. In Psychopathology and Psychopharmacology (ed. Cole, J. O., Freedman, A. M. and Friedhoff, A. J.), pp. 189–193. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore.Google Scholar