Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T22:34:38.190Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The development of anxiety disorders in childhood: an integrative review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2009

L. Murray*
Affiliation:
Winnicott Research Unit, School of Psychology, University of Reading, Reading, UK
C. Creswell
Affiliation:
Winnicott Research Unit, School of Psychology, University of Reading, Reading, UK
P. J. Cooper
Affiliation:
Winnicott Research Unit, School of Psychology, University of Reading, Reading, UK
*
*Address for correspondence: Professor L. Murray, Winnicott Research Unit, School of Psychology, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AL, UK. (Email: [email protected])

Abstract

We present an integrative review of the development of child anxiety, drawing on a number of strands of research. Family aggregation and genetic studies indicate raised vulnerability to anxiety in offspring of adults with the disorder (e.g. the temperamental style of behavioural inhibition, or information processing biases). Environmental factors are also important; these include adverse life events and exposure to negative information or modelling. Parents are likely to be key, although not unique, sources of such influences, particularly if they are anxious themselves. Some parenting behaviours associated with child anxiety, such as overprotection, may be elicited by child characteristics, especially in the context of parental anxiety, and these may serve to maintain child disorder. Emerging evidence emphasizes the importance of taking the nature of child and parental anxiety into account, of constructing assessments and interventions that are both disorder specific, and of considering bidirectional influences.

Type
Review Article
Copyright
Copyright © 2009 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arbelle, S, Benjamin, J, Golin, J, Kremer, I, Belmaker, RH, Ebstein, RP (2003). Relation of shyness in grade school children to the genotype for the long form of the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphisms. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 671676.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ.Google Scholar
Barlow, DH (1988). Anxiety and its Disorders: The Nature and Treatment of Anxiety and Panic. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Barrett, PM, Fox, T, Farrell, L (2005). Parent–child interactions with anxious children and their siblings: an observational study. Behavior Change 22, 220235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, PM, Rapee, RM, Dadds, MR (1996). Family treatment of childhood anxiety: a controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64, 333342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Battaglia, M, Ogliari, A, Zanoni, A, Citterio, A, Pozzoli, U, Giorda, R, Maffei, C, Marino, C (2005). Influence of the serotonin supporter gene and shyness on cerebral responses to facial expressions. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 8594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, AT (1986). Cognitive approaches to anxiety disorders. In Anxiety Disorders: Psychological and Biological Perspectives (ed. Shaw, B. F., Segal, Z. V., Vallis, T. M. and Cashman, F. E.), pp. 115136. Plenum Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biederman, J, Faraone, S, Hirshfeld-Becker, DR, Friedman, D, Robin, JA, Rosenbaum, JF (2001 a). Patterns of psychopathology and dysfunction in high-risk children of parents with panic disorder and major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 4957.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biederman, J, Hirshfeld-Becker, DR, Rosenbaum, JF, Hérot, C, Friedman, D, Snidman, N, Kagan, J, Faraone, SV (2001 b). Further evidence of an association between behavioral inhibition and social anxiety in children. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 16731679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biederman, J, Rosenbaum, JF, Bolduc, EA, Faraone, SV, Hirshfeld, DR (1991). A high risk study of young children of parents with panic disorder and agoraphobia with and without comorbid major depression. Psychiatry Research 37, 333348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bittner, A, Egger, HL, Erklanli, A, Costello, J, Foley, DL, Angold, A (2007). What do childhood anxiety disorders predict? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48, 11741183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogels, SM, Brechman-Toussaint, ML (2006). Family issues in child anxiety: attachment, family functioning, parental rearing and beliefs. Clinical Psychology Review 26, 834856.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogels, SM, Tarrier, N (2004). Unexplored issues and future directions in social phobia research. Clinical Psychology Review 24, 731736.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A, Snudgen, K, Moffitt, TE, Taylor, A, Craig, IW, Harrington, H, McLay, J, Mill, J, Martin, J, Braithewaite, A, Poulton, R (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 301, 386389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chorpita, BF, Barlow, DH (1998). The development of anxiety: the role of control in the early environment. Psychological Bulletin 124, 321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cobham, VE, Spence, SH, Dadds, MR (1998). The role of parental anxiety in the treatment of childhood anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66, 893905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, M, Mineka, S (1987). Second-order conditioning and overshadowing in the observational conditioning of fear in monkeys. Behavior Research and Therapy 25, 349364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, PJ, Fearn, V, Willetts, L, Seabrook, H, Parkinson, M (2006). Affective disorder in the parents of a clinic sample of children with anxiety disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders 93, 205212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costello, J, Egger, HL, Angold, A (2004). Developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders. In Phobic and Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents (ed. Ollendick, T. H. and March, J. S.), pp. 6191. Oxford University Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creswell, C (2004). The Development of Anxious Cognitions in Children. Doctoral dissertation, University College London, UK.Google Scholar
Creswell, C, O'Connor, T, Brewin, C (2008 a). The impact of parents' expectations on parenting behavior: an experimental investigation. Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy 36, 483490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creswell, C, Willetts, L, Murray, L, Singhal, M, Cooper, P (2008 b). Treatment of child anxiety: an exploratory study of the role of maternal anxiety and behaviours in treatment outcome. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 15, 3844.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Creswell, C, Woolgar, M, Cooper, P, Giannakakis, A, Schofield, E, Young, A, Murray, L (2008 c). Processing of faces and emotional expressions in infants at risk of social phobia. Cognition and Emotion 22, 437458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dadds, MR, Barrett, PM (1996). Family processes in child and adolescent anxiety and depression. Behavior Change 13, 231239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denham, S, Zoller, D, Couchard, E (1994). Socialisation of pre-schoolers emotion understanding. Developmental Psychology 30, 928936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Rosnay, M, Cooper, PJ, Tsigaras, N, Murray, L (2006). Transmission of social anxiety from mother to infant: an experimental study using a social referencing paradigm. Behavior Research and Therapy 44, 11651175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DiBartolo, PM, Helt, M (2007). Theoretical models of affectionate versus affectionless control in anxious families: a critical examination based on observations of parent–child interactions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology 10, 253274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dumas, JE, LaFreniere, PJ (1993). Mother–child relationships as sources of support or stress: a comparison of competent, average, aggressive, and anxious dyads. Child Development 64, 17321754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dumas, JE, Serketich, WJ, LaFreniere, PJ (1995). ‘Balance of power’: a transactional analysis of control in mother–child dyads involving socially competent, aggressive, and anxious children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104, 104113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, J, Brown, J, Beardsall, L (1991). Family talk about feeling states and children's later understanding of others' emotions. Developmental Psychology 27, 448455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaves, LJ, Silberg, JL, Meyer, JM, Maes, HH, Simonoff, E, Pickles, A, Rutter, M, Neale, MC, Reynolds, CA, Erikson, MT, Heath, AC, Loeber, R, Truett, KR, Hewitt, JK (1997). Genetics and developmental psychopathology: 2. The main effects of genes and environment on behavioral problems in the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 38, 965980.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehringer, MA, Rhee, SH, Young, S, Corley, R, Hewitt, JK (2006). Genetic and environmental contributions to common psychopathologies of childhood and adolescence: a study of twins and their siblings. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 34, 117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eley, TC, Bolton, D, O'Connor, TG, Perrin, S, Smith, P, Plomin, R (2003). A twin study of anxiety-related behaviors in pre-school children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 44, 945960.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eley, TC, Stevenson, J (2000). Specific life events and chronic experiences differentially associated with depression and anxiety in young twins. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 28, 383394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feigon, SA, Wladman, ID, Levy, F, Hay, AD (2001). Genetic and environmental influences on separation anxiety disorder symptoms and their moderation by age and sex. Behavior Genetics 31, 403411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, AH, Lawson, J (2003). Fear information and the development of fears during childhood: effects on implicit fear responses and behavioral avoidance. Behavior Research and Therapy 41, 12771293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Field, AP (2006). Is conditioning a useful framework for understanding the development and treatment of phobias? Clinical Psychology Review 26, 857875.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, AP, Hamilton, SJ, Knowles, KA, Plews, EL (2003). Fear information and social phobic beliefs in children: a prospective paradigm and preliminary results. Behavior Research and Therapy 41, 113123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finlay-Jones, R, Brown, GW (1981). Types of stressful life events and the onset of anxiety and depressive disorders. Psychological Medicine 11, 803815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisak, B, Grills-Taquechel, AE (2007). Parental modeling, reinforcement, and information transfer: risk factors in the development of child anxiety? Clinical Child and Family Psychology 10, 213231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fivush, R (1991). The social construction of personal narratives. Merrill Palmer Quarterly 37, 5982.Google Scholar
Fivush, R, Vasudeva, A (2002). Remembering to relate: socioemotional correlates of mother–child reminiscing. Journal of Cognition and Development 3, 7390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, NA, Henderson, HA, Marshall, PJ, Nichols, KE, Ghera, MM (2005). Behavioral inhibition: linking biology and behavior within a developmental framework. Annual Review of Psychology 56, 235262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, NA, Henderson, HA, Rubin, KH, Calkins, SD, Schmidt, LA (2001). Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four years of life. Child Development 72, 121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furman, W, Rahe, DF, Hartup, WW (1979). Rehabilitation of socially withdrawn preschool children through mixed-age and same-age socialization. Child Development 50, 915922.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerull, FC, Rapee, RM (2002). Mother knows best: effects of maternal modelling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance behavior in toddlers. Behavior Research and Therapy 40, 279287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodyer, IM, Wright, C, Altham, PME (1988). Maternal adversity and recent stressful life events in anxious and depressed children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 29, 651667.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, AM, Eley, TC (2007). Genetic influences on anxiety in children: what we've learned and where we're heading. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 10, 199212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadwin, JA, Garner, M, Perez-Olivas, G (2006). The development of information processing biases in childhood anxiety: a review and exploration of its origins in parenting. Clinical Psychology Review 26, 876894.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hariri, AR, Mattay, VS, Tessitore, A, Kolochana, B, Fera, F, Goldman, D, Egan, MF, Weinberger, DR (2002). Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdale. Science 297, 400403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayward, C, Killen, JD, Kraemer, KC, Taylor, CB (1998). Linking self-reported childhood behavioral inhibition to adolescent social phobia. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 37, 13081316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hettema, JM, Neale, MC, Kendler, KS (2001). A review and meta-analysis of the genetic epidemiology of anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 15681578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirshfeld, DR, Biederman, J, Brody, L, Faraone, SV, Rosenbaum, JF (1997). Expressed emotion toward children with behavioral inhibition: associations with maternal anxiety disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36, 910917.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hudson, JL, Rapee, RM (2001). Parent–child interactions and anxiety disorders: an observational study. Behavior Research and Therapy 39, 14111427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hudson, JL, Rapee, RM (2002). Parent–child interactions in clinically anxious children and their siblings. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 31, 548555.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hudson, JL, Rapee, RM (2004). From anxious temperament to disorder: an etiological model of generalized anxiety disorder. In Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Advances in Research and Practice (ed. Heimberg, R. G., Turk, C. L. and Mennin, D. S.), pp. 5174. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Kagan, J (1989). Temperamental contributions to social behavior. American Psychologist 44, 668674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagan, J (1994). Inhibited and uninhibited temperaments. In Prevention and Early Intervention: Individual Differences as Risk Factors for the Mental Health of Children (ed. Carey, W. B. and McDevitt, S. C.), pp. 3541. Brunner/Mazel: New York.Google Scholar
Kagan, J, Reznick, JS, Snidman, N, Gibbons, J, Johnson, MO (1988). Childhood derivatives of inhibition lack of inhibition to the unfamiliar. Child Development 59, 15801589.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagan, J, Snidman, N, Kahn, V, Towsley, S (2007). The Preservation of Two Infant Temperaments into Adolescence. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, No. 287. Blackwell: Boston.Google ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J, Yang, BZ, Douglas-Palumberi, H, Houshyar, S, Lipschitz, D, Krystal, JH, Gelernter, J (2004). Social supports and the serotonin transporter gene moderate depression in maltreated children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101, 1731617421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Myers, J, Prescott, CA (2000). Parenting and adult mood, anxiety and substance disorders in female twins: an epidemiological, multi-informant, retrospective study. Psychological Medicine 30, 281294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, KJ, Conger, RD, Elder, Jr. GH, Lorenz, FO (2003). Reciprocal influences between stressful life events and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Child Development 74, 127143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kindt, M, Bierman, JS, Brosschot, JS (1997). Cognitive bias in spider fear and control children: assessment of emotional interference by a card format and a single-trial format of the Stroop. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 66, 163179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, NJ, Eleonora, G, Ollendick, TH (1998). Etiology of childhood phobias: current status of Rachman's three pathways theory. Behavior Research and Therapy 36, 297309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Last, CG, Hersen, M, Kazdin, AE, Francis, G, Grubb, HJ (1987). Psychiatric illness in the mothers of anxious children. American Journal of Psychiatry 144, 15801583.Google ScholarPubMed
Last, CG, Hersen, M, Kazdin, AE, Orvaschel, H, Perrin, S (1991). Anxiety disorders in children and their families. Archives of General Psychiatry 48, 928939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawson, J, Banerjee, R, Field, AP (2007). The effects of verbal information on children's fear beliefs about social situations. Behavior Research and Therapy 45, 2137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Legrand, LN, McGue, M, Iacono, WG (1999). A twin study of state and trait anxiety in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 953958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, A (1942). Incidence of neurosis in England under war conditions. Lancet 2, 175183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mancini, C, van Ameringen, M, Szatmari, P, Fugere, C, Boyle, M (1996). A high risk pilot study of the children of adults with social phobia. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35, 15111517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, M, Jones, GV (1995). Integral bias in the cognitive processing of emotionally linked pictures. British Journal of Psychology 86, 419435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McFarlane, AC (1987). Posttraumatic phenomena in a longitudinal study of children following a natural disaster. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 26, 764769.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLeod, BD, Wood, JJ, Weisz, JR (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review 27, 155172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Menzies, RG, Clarke, JC (1995). The etiology of phobias: a nonassociative account. Clinical Psychology Review 15, 2348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mineka, S (1988). A primate model of phobic fears. In Theoretical Foundations of Behavior Therapy (ed. Eysenck, H. and Martin, I.), pp. 81111. Plenum Press: New York.Google Scholar
Mineka, S, Davidson, M, Cook, M, Kein, R (1984). Observational conditioning of snake fear in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 93, 355372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mineka, S, Gunner, M, Champoux, M (1986). Control and early emotional development: infant rhesus monkeys reared in controllable versus uncontrollable environments. Child Development 57, 12411256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mineka, S, Zinbarg, R (2006). A contemporary learning theory perspective on the etiology of anxiety disorders: it's not what you thought it was. American Psychologist 61, 1026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, PS, Whaley, SE, Sigman, M (2004). Interactions between mothers and children: impacts of maternal and child anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 113, 471476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munafo, MR, Clark, TG, Moore, LR, Payne, E, Wlaton, R, Flint, J (2003). Genetic polymorphisms and personality in healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry 8, 471484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muris, P, Merckelbach, H, Jong, PJ, Ollendick, TH (2002). The etiology of specific fears and phobias in children: a critique of the non-associative account. Behavior Research and Therapy 40, 185195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muris, P, Steernmen, P, Merckelbach, H, Meesters, C (1996). The role of parental fearfulness and modeling in children's fear. Behavior Research and Therapy 34, 265268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, L, Cooper, PJ, Creswell, C, Schofield, E, Sack, C (2007). The effects of maternal social phobia on mother–infant interactions and infant social responsiveness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48, 4552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, L, DeRosnay, M, Pearson, J, Bergeron, C, Schofield, L, Royal-Lawson, M, Cooper, PJ (2008). Intergenerational transmission of maternal social anxiety: the role of the social referencing process. Child Development 79, 10491064.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, K (1993). The psychological and social origins of autobiographic memory. Psychological Science 4, 18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ollendick, TH (1979). Fear reduction techniques with children. In Progress in Behavior Modification (ed. Hersen, M., Eisler, R. M. and Miller, P. M.), pp. 127168. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Ollendick, TH, King, NJ (1991). Origins of childhood fears: an evaluation of Rachman's theory of fear acquisition. Behavior Research and Therapy 29, 117123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, G (1983). Parental Overprotection: A Risk Factor in Psychosocial Development. Grune and Stratton: New York.Google Scholar
Phillips, NK, Hammen, CL, Brennan, PA, Najman, JM, Bor, W (2005). Early adversity and the prospective prediction of depressive and anxiety disorders in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 33, 1324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachman, S (1990). The determinants and treatment of simple phobias. Advances in Behavior Research and Therapy 12, 130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapee, RM (2001). The development of generalized anxiety disorder. In The Developmental Psychopathology of Anxiety (ed. Vasey, M. W. and Dadds, M. R.), pp. 481504. Oxford University Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapee, RM, Spence, SH (2004). The etiology of social phobia: empirical evidence and an initial model. Clinical Psychology Review 24, 737767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickman, M, Davidson, R (1994). Personality and behavior in parents of temperamentally inhibited or uninhibited children. Developmental Psychology 30, 346354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenbaum, JF, Biederman, J, Gersten, M, Hirshfeld, DR, Meminger, SR, Herman, JB, Kagan, J, Reznick, JS, Snidman, N (1988). Behavioral inhibition in parents of children with panic disorder and agoraphobia: a controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry 45, 463470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenbaum, JF, Biederman, J, Hirshfield, DR, Bolduc, EA, Faraone, SV, Kagan, J, Snidman, N, Reznick, JS (1991). Further evidence of an association between behavioral inhibition and anxiety disorders: results from a family study of children from a non-clinical sample. Journal of Psychiatric Research 25, 4965.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenbaum, JF, Biederman, J, Hirshfeld-Becker, DR, Kagan, J, Snidman, N, Friedman, D, Nineberg, A, Gallery, DJ, Faraone, SV (2000). A controlled study of behavioral inhibition in children of parents with panic disorder and depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 20022010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, KH, Burgess, KB, Hastings, PD (2002). Stability and social-behavioral consequences of toddlers' inhibited temperament and parenting behaviors. Child Development 73, 483495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, LA, Fox, NA, Rubin, KH, Hu, S, Hamer, DH (2002). Molecular genetics of shyness and aggression in preschoolers. Personality and Individual Differences 33, 227238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, C, Snidman, N, Kagan, J (1999). Adolescent social anxiety as an outcome of inhibited temperament in childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38, 10081015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shanahan, L, Copeland, W, Costello, EJ, Angold, A (2008). Specificity of putative psychosocial risk factors for psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 49, 3442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silove, D, Manicavasagar, V, O'Connell, D, Morris-Yates, A (1995). Genetic factors in early separation anxiety: implications for the genesis of adult anxiety disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandanavica 92, 1724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stubbe, DE, Zahner, GE, Goldstein, MJ, Leckman, JF (1993). Diagnostic specificity of a brief measure of expressed emotion: a community study of children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 34, 139154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suveg, C, Zeman, J, Flannery-Schroeder, E, Cassano, M (2005). Emotion socialization in families of children with an anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 33, 145155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swearingen, EMC, Cohen, LH (1985). Life events and psychological distress: a prospective study of young adolescents. Developmental Psychology 21, 10451054.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thapar, A, McGuffin, P (1995). Are anxiety symptoms in childhood heritable? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 36, 439447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, SM, Biedel, DC, Costello, A (1987). Psychopathology in the offspring of anxiety disordered patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 55, 229235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, SM, Beidel, DC, Wolff, PL (1996). Is behavioral inhibition related to the anxiety disorders? Clinical Psychology Review 16, 157172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warner, V, Mufson, L, Weissman, MM (1995). Offspring at low and high risk for depression and anxiety: mechanisms of psychiatric disorder. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34, 786797.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warren, SL, Emde, RN, Sroufe, LA (2000). Internal representations: predicting anxiety from children's play narratives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39, 100107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warren, SL, Simmens, SJ (2005). Predicting toddler anxiety/depressive symptoms: effects of caregiver sensitivity on temperamentally vulnerable children. Infant Mental Health Journal 26, 4055.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, MM, Leckman, JF, Merikangas, KR, Gammon, GD, Prusoff, BA (1984). Depression and anxiety disorders in parents and children. Archives of General Psychiatry 41, 845852.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whaley, SE, Pinto, A, Sigman, M (1999). Characterizing interactions between anxious mothers and their children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 67, 826836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, JJ, McLeod, BD, Sigman, M, Hwang, W, Chu, BC (2003). Parenting and childhood anxiety: theory, empirical findings, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 44, 134151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, JJ, Piacentini, JC, Southam-Gerow, M, Chu, BC, Sigman, M (2006). Family cognitive behavioral therapy for child anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 45, 314321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed