Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T23:21:36.678Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Continuity of genetic and environmental influences on clinically assessed major depression from ages 18 to 45

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 November 2018

Fartein Ask Torvik ,
Kristin Gustavson Open the ORCID record for Kristin Gustavson [Opens in a new window] ,
Eivind Ystrom Open the ORCID record for Eivind Ystrom [Opens in a new window] ,
Tom H. Rosenström ,
Nathan Gillespie Open the ORCID record for Nathan Gillespie [Opens in a new window] ,
Ted Reichborn-Kjennerud Open the ORCID record for Ted Reichborn-Kjennerud [Opens in a new window]  and
Kenneth S. Kendler Open the ORCID record for Kenneth S. Kendler [Opens in a new window]
Fartein Ask Torvik*
Affiliation:
Department of Mental Disorders, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Kristin Gustavson
Affiliation:
Department of Mental Disorders, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Eivind Ystrom
Affiliation:
Department of Mental Disorders, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway PharmacoEpidemiology and Drug Safety Research Group, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Tom H. Rosenström
Affiliation:
Department of Mental Disorders, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
Nathan Gillespie
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
Ted Reichborn-Kjennerud
Affiliation:
Department of Mental Disorders, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Kenneth S. Kendler
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA Department of Human and Molecular Genetics and Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
*
Author for correspondence: F. A. Torvik, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Studies on the stability of genetic risk for depression have relied on self-reported symptoms rather than diagnoses and/or short follow-up time. Our aim is to determine to what degree genetic and environmental influences on clinically assessed major depressive disorder (MDD) are stable between age 18 and 45.

Methods

A population-based sample of 11 727 twins (6875 women) born between 1967 and 1991 was followed from 2006 to 2015 in health registry data from primary care that included diagnoses provided by treating physicians. Individuals with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder (n = 163) were excluded. We modelled genetic and environmental risk factors for MDD in an accelerated longitudinal design.

Results

The best-fitting model indicated that genetic influences on MDD were completely stable from ages 18 to 45 and explained 38% of the variance. At each age, the environmental risk of MDD was determined by the risk at the preceding observation, plus new environmental risk, with an environmental correlation of +0.60 over 2 years. The model indicated no effects of shared environment and no environmental effects stable throughout the observational period. All long-term stability was therefore explained by genetic factors.

Conclusions

Different processes unfolded in the genetic and environmental risk for MDD. The genetic component is stable from later adolescence to middle adulthood and accounted for nearly all long-term stability. Therefore, molecular genetic studies can use age-heterogenous samples when investigating genetic risk variants of MDD. Environmental risk factors were stable over a short span of years with associations rapidly decreasing and no evidence of permanent environmental scarring.

Keywords

Adult developmentepidemiologygeneticsmajor depressionmood disorders-unipolar
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 49 , Issue 15 , November 2019 , pp. 2582 - 2590
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

These authors are joint senior authors.

References

Bergen, SE, Gardner, CO and Kendler, KS (2007) Age-related changes in heritability of behavioral phenotypes over adolescence and young adulthood: a meta-analysis. Twin Research and Human Genetics 10, 423–433.Google Scholar
Burcusa, SL and Iacono, WG (2007) Risk for recurrence in depression. Clinical Psychology Review 27, 959–985.Google Scholar
Cerda, M, Sagdeo, A, Johnson, J and Galea, S (2010) Genetic and environmental influences on psychiatric comorbidity: a systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders 126, 14–38.Google Scholar
Converge Consortium (2015) Sparse whole-genome sequencing identifies two loci for major depressive disorder. Nature 523, 588–591.Google Scholar
de Graaf, R, ten Have, M, van Gool, C and van Dorsselaer, S (2012) Prevalence of mental disorders and trends from 1996 to 2009. Results from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study-2. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 47, 203–213.Google Scholar
Direk, N, Williams, S, Smith, JA, Ripke, S, Air, T, Amare, AT, Amin, N, Baune, BT, Bennett, DA, Blackwood, DHR, Boomsma, D, Breen, G, Buttenschon, HN, Byrne, EM, Borglum, AD, Castelao, E, Cichon, S, Clarke, TK, Cornelis, MC, Dannlowski, U, De Jager, PL, Demirkan, A, Domenici, E, van Duijn, CM, Dunn, EC, Eriksson, JG, Esko, T, Faul, JD, Ferrucci, L, Fornage, M, de Geus, E, Gill, M, Gordon, SD, Grabe, HJ, van Grootheest, G, Hamilton, SP, Hartman, CA, Heath, AC, Hek, K, Hofman, A, Homuth, G, Horn, C, Jan Hottenga, J, Kardia, SLR, Kloiber, S, Koenen, K, Kutalik, Z, Ladwig, KH, Lahti, J, Levinson, DF, Lewis, CM, Lewis, G, Li, QS, Llewellyn, DJ, Lucae, S, Lunetta, KL, MacIntyre, DJ, Madden, P, Martin, NG, McIntosh, AM, Metspalu, A, Milaneschi, Y, Montgomery, GW, Mors, O, Mosley, TH Jr., Murabito, JM, Muller-Myhsok, B, Nothen, MM, Nyholt, DR, O'Donovan, MC, Penninx, BW, Pergadia, ML, Perlis, R, Potash, JB, Preisig, M, Purcell, SM, Quiroz, JA, Raikkonen, K, Rice, JP, Rietschel, M, Rivera, M, Schulze, TG, Shi, J, Shyn, S, Sinnamon, GC, Smit, JH, Smoller, JW, Snieder, H, Tanaka, T, Tansey, KE, Teumer, A, Uher, R, Umbricht, D, Van der Auwera, S, Ware, EB, Weir, DR, Weissman, MM, Willemsen, G, Yang, J, Zhao, W, Tiemeier, H and Sullivan, PF (2017) An analysis of two genome-wide association meta-analyses identifies a new locus for broad depression phenotype. Biological Psychiatry 82, 322–329.Google Scholar
Dunn, EC, Brown, RC, Dai, Y, Rosand, J, Nugent, NR, Amstadter, AB and Smoller, JW (2015) Genetic determinants of depression: recent findings and future directions. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 23, 1–18.Google Scholar
Falconer, DS (1965) The inheritance of liability to certain diseases, estimated from the incidence among relatives. Annals of Human Genetics 29, 51–76.Google Scholar
Ferrari, AJ, Charlson, FJ, Norman, RE, Patten, SB, Freedman, G, Murray, CJL, Vos, T and Whiteford, HA (2013) Burden of depressive disorders by country, sex, age, and year: findings from the global burden of disease study 2010. Plos Medicine 10, e1001547.Google Scholar
Geschwind, DH and Flint, J (2015) Genetics and genomics of psychiatric disease. Science 349, 1489–1494.Google Scholar
Gillespie, NA, Kirk, KM, Evans, DM, Heath, AC, Hickie, IB and Martin, NG (2004) Do the genetic or environmental determinants of anxiety and depression change with age? A longitudinal study of Australian twins. Twin Research 7, 39–53.Google Scholar
Hammen, C (2005) Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1, 293–319.Google Scholar
Hasin, DS and Grant, BF (2015) The national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions (NESARC) waves 1 and 2: review and summary of findings. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 50, 1609–1640.Google Scholar
Hyde, CL, Nagle, MW, Tian, C, Chen, X, Paciga, SA, Wendland, JR, Tung, JY, Hinds, DA, Perlis, RH and Winslow, AR (2016) Identification of 15 genetic loci associated with risk of major depression in individuals of European descent. Nature Genetics 48, 1031–1036.Google Scholar
Kendler, KS and Gardner, CO (2010) Dependent stressful life events and prior depressive episodes in the prediction of major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 1120–1127.Google Scholar
Kendler, KS and Gardner, CO (2017) Genetic and environmental influences on last-year major depression in adulthood: a highly heritable stable liability but strong environmental effects on 1-year prevalence. Psychological Medicine 47, 1816–1824.Google Scholar
Kendler, KS, Neale, MC, Kessler, RC, Heath, AC and Eaves, LJ (1993) A longitudinal twin study of 1-year prevalence of Major depression in women. Archives of General Psychiatry 50, 843–852.Google Scholar
Kendler, KS, Gatz, M, Gardner, CO and Pedersen, NL (2006) A Swedish national twin study of lifetime major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 109–114.Google Scholar
Kendler, KS, Gardner, CO and Lichtenstein, P (2008) A developmental twin study of symptoms of anxiety and depression: evidence for genetic innovation and attenuation. Psychological Medicine 38, 1567–1575.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Berglund, P, Demler, O, Jin, R, Merikangas, KR and Walters, EE (2005) Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 593–602.Google Scholar
Korten, NCM, Comijs, HC, Lamers, F and Penninx, BWJH (2012) Early and late onset depression in young and middle aged adults: differential symptomatology, characteristics and risk factors? Journal of Affective Disorders 138, 259–267.Google Scholar
Kringlen, E, Torgersen, S and Cramer, V (2001) A Norwegian psychiatric epidemiological study. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 1091–1098.Google Scholar
Kringlen, E, Torgersen, S and Cramer, V (2006) Mental illness in a rural area: a Norwegian psychiatric epidemiological study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 41, 713–719.Google Scholar
Lamb, DJ, Middeldorp, CM, van Beijsterveldt, CEM, Bartels, M, van der Aa, N, Polderman, TJC and Boomsma, DI (2010) Heritability of anxious-depressive and withdrawn behavior: age-related changes during adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 49, 248–255.Google Scholar
Lee, SH, Ripke, S, Neale, BM, Faraone, SV, Purcell, SM, Perlis, RH, Mowry, BJ, Thapar, A, Goddard, ME, Witte, JS, Absher, D, Agartz, I, Akil, H, Amin, F, Andreassen, OA, Anjorin, A, Anney, R, Anttila, V, Arking, DE, Asherson, P, Azevedo, MH, Backlund, L, Badner, JA, Bailey, AJ, Banaschewski, T, Barchas, JD, Barnes, MR, Barrett, TB, Bass, N, Battaglia, A, Bauer, M, Bayes, M, Bellivier, F, Bergen, SE, Berrettini, W, Betancur, C, Bettecken, T, Biederman, J, Binder, EB, Black, DW, Blackwood, DHR, Bloss, CS, Boehnke, M, Boomsma, DI, Breen, G, Breuer, R, Bruggeman, R, Cormican, P, Buccola, NG, Buitelaar, JK, Bunney, WE, Buxbaum, JD, Byerley, WF, Byrne, EM, Caesar, S, Cahn, W, Cantor, RM, Casas, M, Chakravarti, A, Chambert, K, Choudhury, K, Cichon, S, Cloninger, CR, Collier, DA, Cook, EH, Coon, H, Cormand, B, Corvin, A, Coryell, WH, Craig, DW, Craig, IW, Crosbie, J, Cuccaro, ML, Curtis, D, Czamara, D, Datta, S, Dawson, G, Day, R, De Geus, EJ, Degenhardt, F, Djurovic, S, Donohoe, GJ, Doyle, AE, Duan, JB, Dudbridge, F, Duketis, E, Ebstein, RP, Edenberg, HJ, Elia, J, Ennis, S, Etain, B, Fanous, A, Farmer, AE, Ferrier, IN, Flickinger, M, Fombonne, E, Foroud, T, Frank, J, Franke, B, Fraser, C, Freedman, R, Freimer, NB, Freitag, CM, Friedl, M, Frisen, L, Gallagher, L, Gejman, PV, Georgieva, L, Gershon, ES, Geschwind, DH, Giegling, I, Gill, M, Gordon, SD, Gordon-Smith, K, Green, EK, Greenwood, TA, Grice, DE, Gross, M, Grozeva, D, Guan, WH, Gurling, H, De Haan, L, Haines, JL, Hakonarson, H, Hallmayer, J, Hamilton, SP, Hamshere, ML, Hansen, TF, Hartmann, AM, Hautzinger, M, Heath, AC, Henders, AK, Herms, S, Hickie, IB, Hipolito, M, Hoefels, S, Holmans, PA, Holsboer, F, Hoogendijk, WJ, Hottenga, JJ, Hultman, CM, Hus, V, Ingason, A, Ising, M, Jamain, S, Jones, EG, Jones, I, Jones, L, Tzeng, JY, Kahler, AK, Kahn, RS, Kandaswamy, R, Keller, MC, Kennedy, JL, Kenny, E, Kent, L, Kim, Y, Kirov, GK, Klauck, SM, Klei, L, Knowles, JA, Kohli, MA, Koller, DL, Konte, B, Korszun, A, Krabbendam, L, Krasucki, R, Kuntsi, J, Kwan, P, Landen, M, Langstrom, N, Lathrop, M, Lawrence, J, Lawson, WB, Leboyer, M, Ledbetter, DH, Lee, PH, Lencz, T, Lesch, KP, Levinson, DF, Lewis, CM, Li, J, Lichtenstein, P, Lieberman, JA, Lin, DY, Linszen, DH, Liu, CY, Lohoff, FW, Loo, SK, Lord, C, Lowe, JK, Lucae, S, MacIntyre, DJ, Madden, PAF, Maestrini, E, Magnusson, PKE, Mahon, PB, Maier, W, Malhotra, AK, Mane, SM, Martin, CL, Martin, NG, Mattheisen, M, Matthews, K, Mattingsdal, M, McCarroll, SA, McGhee, KA, McGough, JJ, McGrath, PJ, McGuffin, P, McInnis, MG, McIntosh, A, McKinney, R, McLean, AW, McMahon, FJ, McMahon, WM, McQuillin, A, Medeiros, H, Medland, SE, Meier, S, Melle, I, Meng, F, Meyer, J, Middeldorp, CM, Middleton, L, Milanova, V, Miranda, A, Monaco, AP, Montgomery, GW, Moran, JL, Moreno-De-Luca, D, Morken, G, Morris, DW, Morrow, EM, Moskvina, V, Muglia, P, Muhleisen, TW, Muir, WJ, Muller-Myhsok, B, Murtha, M, Myers, RM, Myin-Germeys, I, Neale, MC, Nelson, SF, Nievergelt, CM, Nikolov, I, Nimgaonkar, V, Nolen, WA, Nothen, MM, Nurnberger, JI, Nwulia, EA, Nyholt, DR, O'Dushlaine, C, Oades, RD, Olincy, A, Oliveira, G, Olsen, L, Ophoff, RA, Osby, U, Owen, MJ, Palotie, A, Parr, JR, Paterson, AD, Pato, CN, Pato, MT, Penninx, BW, Pergadia, ML, Pericak-Vance, MA, Pickard, BS, Pimm, J, Piven, J, Posthuma, D, Potash, JB, Poustka, F, Propping, P, Puri, V, Quested, DJ, Quinn, EM, Ramos-Quiroga, JA, Rasmussen, HB, Raychaudhuri, S, Rehnstrom, K, Reif, A, Ribases, M, Rice, JP, Rietschel, M, Roeder, K, Roeyers, H, Rossin, L, Rothenberger, A, Rouleau, G, Ruderfer, D, Rujescu, D, Sanders, AR, Sanders, SJ, Santangelo, SL, Sergeant, JA, Schachar, R, Schalling, M, Schatzberg, AF, Scheftner, WA, Schellenberg, GD, Scherer, SW, Schork, NJ, Schulze, TG, Schumacher, J, Schwarz, M, Scolnick, E, Scott, LJ, Shi, JX, Shilling, PD, Shyn, SI, Silverman, JM, Slager, SL, Smalley, SL, Smit, JH, Smith, EN, Sonuga-Barke, EJS, St Clair, D, State, M, Steffens, M, Steinhausen, HC, Strauss, JS, Strohmaier, J, Stroup, TS, Sutcliffe, JS, Szatmari, P, Szelinger, S, Thirumalai, S, Thompson, RC, Todorov, AA, Tozzi, F, Treutlein, J, Uhr, M, van den Oord, EJCG, Van Grootheest, G, Van Os, J, Vicente, AM, Vieland, VJ, Vincent, JB, Visscher, PM, Walsh, CA, Wassink, TH, Watson, SJ, Weissman, MM, Werge, T, Wienker, TF, Wijsman, EM, Willemsen, G, Williams, N, Willsey, AJ, Witt, SH, Xu, W, Young, AH, Yu, TW, Zammit, S, Zandi, PP, Zhang, P, Zitman, FG, Zollner, S, Devlin, B, Kelsoe, JR, Sklar, P, Daly, MJ, O'Donovan, MC, Craddock, N, Sullivan, PF, Smoller, JW, Kendler, KS, Wray, NR, Genomi, C-DGP and Genetic, IIBD (2013) Genetic relationship between five psychiatric disorders estimated from genome-wide SNPs. Nature Genetics 45, 984.Google Scholar
Long, EC, Lonn, SL, Sundquist, J, Sundquist, K and Kendler, KS (2017) A National Swedish Longitudinal Twin-Sibling Study of alcohol use disorders among males. Addiction 112, 1378–1385.Google Scholar
Lubke, GH, Hottenga, JJ, Walters, R, Laurin, C, de Geus, EJC, Willemsen, G, Smit, JH, Middeldorp, CM, Penninx, BWJH, Vink, JM and Boomsma, DI (2012) Estimating the genetic variance of major depressive disorder due to all single nucleotide polymorphisms. Biological Psychiatry 72, 707–709.Google Scholar
Monroe, SM and Harkness, KL (2005) Life stress, the “Kindling” hypothesis, and the recurrence of depression: considerations from a life stress perspective. Psychological Review 112, 417–445.Google Scholar
Neale, M and Cardon, L (1992) Methodology for Genetic Studies of Twins and Families. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Nivard, MG, Dolan, CV, Kendler, KS, Kan, KJ, Willemsen, G, van Beijsterveldt, CEM, Lindauer, RJL, van Beek, JHDA, Geels, LM, Bartels, M, Middeldorp, CM and Boomsma, DI (2015) Stability in symptoms of anxiety and depression as a function of genotype and environment: a longitudinal twin study from ages 3 to 63 years. Psychological Medicine 45, 1039–1049.Google Scholar
Petkus, AJ, Gatz, M, Reynolds, CA, Kremen, WS and Wetherell, JL (2016) Stability of genetic and environmental contributions to anxiety symptoms in older adulthood. Behavior Genetics 46, 492–505.Google Scholar
Power, RA, Tansey, KE, Buttenschon, HN, Cohen-Woods, S, Bigdeli, T, Hall, LS, Kutalik, Z, Lee, SH, Ripke, S, Steinberg, S, Teumer, A, Viktorin, A, Wray, NR, Arolt, V, Baune, BT, Boomsma, DI, Borglum, AD, Byrne, EM, Castelao, E, Craddock, N, Craig, IW, Dannlowski, U, Deary, IJ, Degenhardt, F, Forstner, AJ, Gordon, SD, Grabe, HJ, Grove, J, Hamilton, SP, Hayward, C, Heath, AC, Hocking, LJ, Homuth, G, Hottenga, JJ, Kloiber, S, Krogh, J, Landen, M, Lang, M, Levinson, DF, Lichtenstein, P, Lucae, S, MacIntyre, DJ, Madden, P, Magnusson, PK, Martin, NG, McIntosh, AM, Middeldorp, CM, Milaneschi, Y, Montgomery, GW, Mors, O, Muller-Myhsok, B, Nyholt, DR, Oskarsson, H, Owen, MJ, Padmanabhan, S, Penninx, BW, Pergadia, ML, Porteous, DJ, Potash, JB, Preisig, M, Rivera, M, Shi, J, Shyn, SI, Sigurdsson, E, Smit, JH, Smith, BH, Stefansson, H, Stefansson, K, Strohmaier, J, Sullivan, PF, Thomson, P, Thorgeirsson, TE, Van der Auwera, S, Weissman, MM, Converge Consortium CCGC, Breen, G and Lewis, CM (2017) Genome-wide association for Major depression through age at onset stratification: major depressive disorder working group of the psychiatric genomics consortium. Biological Psychiatry 81, 325–335.Google Scholar
Ripke, S, Wray, NR, Lewis, CM, Hamilton, SP, Weissman, MM, Breen, G, Byrne, EM, Blackwood, DH, Boomsma, DI, Cichon, S, Heath, AC, Holsboer, F, Lucae, S, Madden, PA, Martin, NG, McGuffin, P, Muglia, P, Noethen, MM, Penninx, BP, Pergadia, ML, Potash, JB, Rietschel, M, Lin, D, Muller-Myhsok, B, Shi, J, Steinberg, S, Grabe, HJ, Lichtenstein, P, Magnusson, P, Perlis, RH, Preisig, M, Smoller, JW, Stefansson, K, Uher, R, Kutalik, Z, Tansey, KE, Teumer, A, Viktorin, A, Barnes, MR, Bettecken, T, Binder, EB, Breuer, R, Castro, VM, Churchill, SE, Coryell, WH, Craddock, N, Craig, IW, Czamara, D, De Geus, EJ, Degenhardt, F, Farmer, AE, Fava, M, Frank, J, Gainer, VS, Gallagher, PJ, Gordon, SD, Goryachev, S, Gross, M, Guipponi, M, Henders, AK, Herms, S, Hickie, IB, Hoefels, S, Hoogendijk, W, Hottenga, JJ, Iosifescu, DV, Ising, M, Jones, I, Jones, L, Jung-Ying, T, Knowles, JA, Kohane, IS, Kohli, MA, Korszun, A, Landen, M, Lawson, WB, Lewis, G, Macintyre, D, Maier, W, Mattheisen, M, McGrath, PJ, McIntosh, A, McLean, A, Middeldorp, CM, Middleton, L, Montgomery, GM, Murphy, SN, Nauck, M, Nolen, WA, Nyholt, DR, O'Donovan, M, Oskarsson, H, Pedersen, N, Scheftner, WA, Schulz, A, Schulze, TG, Shyn, SI, Sigurdsson, E, Slager, SL, Smit, JH, Stefansson, H, Steffens, M, Thorgeirsson, T, Tozzi, F, Treutlein, J, Uhr, M, van den Oord, EJ, Van Grootheest, G, Volzke, H, Weilburg, JB, Willemsen, G, Zitman, FG, Neale, B, Daly, M, Levinson, DF and Sullivan, PF (2013) A mega-analysis of genome-wide association studies for major depressive disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 18, 497–511.Google Scholar
Rosenstrom, T, Jokela, M, Hintsanen, M, Pulkki-Raback, L, Hutri-Kahonen, N and Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L (2013) Longitudinal course of depressive symptoms in adulthood: linear stochastic differential equation modeling. Psychological Medicine 43, 933–944.Google Scholar
Sclove, SL (1987) Application of model-selection criteria to some problems in multivariate analysis. Psychometrika 52, 333–343.Google Scholar
Sullivan, PF, Neale, MC and Kendler, KS (2000) Genetic epidemiology of major depression: review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 1552–1562.Google Scholar
Thornicroft, G, Chatterji, S, Evans-Lacko, S, Gruber, M, Sampson, N, Aguilar-Gaxiola, S, Al-Hamzawi, A, Alonso, J, Andrade, L, Borges, G, Bruffaerts, R, Bunting, B, de Almeida, JM, Florescu, S, de Girolamo, G, Gureje, O, Haro, JM, He, Y, Hinkov, H, Karam, E, Kawakami, N, Lee, S, Navarro-Mateu, F, Piazza, M, Posada-Villa, J, de Galvis, YT and Kessler, RC (2017) Undertreatment of people with major depressive disorder in 21 countries. British Journal of Psychiatry 210, 119–124.Google Scholar
Torvik, FA, Rosenstrom, TH, Ystrom, E, Tambs, K, Roysamb, E, Czajkowski, N, Gillespie, N, Knudsen, GP, Kendler, KS and Reichborn-Kjennerud, T (2017) Stability and change in etiological factors for alcohol use disorder and major depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 126, 812–822.Google Scholar
Torvik, FA, Ystrom, E, Gustavson, K, Rosenstrom, TH, Bramness, JG, Gillespie, N, Aggen, SH, Kendler, KS and Reichborn-Kjennerud, T (2018) Diagnostic and genetic overlap of three common mental disorders in structured interviews and health registries. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 137, 54–64.Google Scholar
Van der Auwera, S, Peyrot, WJ, Milaneschi, Y, Hertel, J, Baune, B, Breen, G, Byrne, E, Dunn, EC, Fisher, H, Homuth, G, Levinson, D, Lewis, C, Mills, N, Mullins, N, Nauck, M, Pistis, G, Preisig, M, Rietschel, M, Ripke, S, Sullivan, P, Teumer, A, Volzke, H, Major Depressive Disorder Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics C, Boomsma, DI, Wray, NR, Penninx, B and Grabe, H (2018) Genome-wide gene-environment interaction in depression: a systematic evaluation of candidate genes: the childhood trauma working-group of PGC-MDD. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics 177, 40–49.Google Scholar
Waszczuk, MA, Zavos, HMS, Gregory, AM and Eley, TC (2016) The stability and change of etiological influences on depression, anxiety symptoms and their co-occurrence across adolescence and young adulthood. Psychological Medicine 46, 161–175.Google Scholar
World Organization of National Colleges Academies (2005) ICPC-2-R: International Classification of Primary Care. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wray, NR, Ripke, S, Mattheisen, M, Trzaskowski, M, Byrne, EM, Abdellaoui, A, Adams, MJ, Agerbo, E, Air, TM, Andlauer, TMF, Bacanu, SA, Baekvad-Hansen, M, Beekman, AFT, Bigdeli, TB, Binder, EB, Blackwood, DRH, Bryois, J, Buttenschon, HN, Bybjerg-Grauholm, J, Cai, N, Castelao, E, Christensen, JH, Clarke, TK, Coleman, JIR, Colodro-Conde, L, Couvy-Duchesne, B, Craddock, N, Crawford, GE, Crowley, CA, Dashti, HS, Davies, G, Deary, IJ, Degenhardt, F, Derks, EM, Direk, N, Dolan, CV, Dunn, EC, Eley, TC, Eriksson, N, Escott-Price, V, Kiadeh, FHF, Finucane, HK, Forstner, AJ, Frank, J, Gaspar, HA, Gill, M, Giusti-Rodriguez, P, Goes, FS, Gordon, SD, Grove, J, Hall, LS, Hannon, E, Hansen, CS, Hansen, TF, Herms, S, Hickie, IB, Hoffmann, P, Homuth, G, Horn, C, Hottenga, JJ, Hougaard, DM, Hu, M, Hyde, CL, Ising, M, Jansen, R, Jin, F, Jorgenson, E, Knowles, JA, Kohane, IS, Kraft, J, Kretzschmar, WW, Krogh, J, Kutalik, Z, Lane, JM, Li, Y, Li, Y, Lind, PA, Liu, X, Lu, L, MacIntyre, DJ, MacKinnon, DF, Maier, RM, Maier, W, Marchini, J, Mbarek, H, McGrath, P, McGuffin, P, Medland, SE, Mehta, D, Middeldorp, CM, Mihailov, E, Milaneschi, Y, Milani, L, Mill, J, Mondimore, FM, Montgomery, GW, Mostafavi, S, Mullins, N, Nauck, M, Ng, B, Nivard, MG, Nyholt, DR, O'Reilly, PF, Oskarsson, H, Owen, MJ, Painter, JN, Pedersen, CB, Pedersen, MG, Peterson, RE, Pettersson, E, Peyrot, WJ, Pistis, G, Posthuma, D, Purcell, SM, Quiroz, JA, Qvist, P, Rice, JP, Riley, BP, Rivera, M, Saeed Mirza, S, Saxena, R, Schoevers, R, Schulte, EC, Shen, L, Shi, J, Shyn, SI, Sigurdsson, E, Sinnamon, GBC, Smit, JH, Smith, DJ, Stefansson, H, Steinberg, S, Stockmeier, CA, Streit, F, Strohmaier, J, Tansey, KE, Teismann, H, Teumer, A, Thompson, W, Thomson, PA, Thorgeirsson, TE, Tian, C, Traylor, M, Treutlein, J, Trubetskoy, V, Uitterlinden, AG, Umbricht, D, Van der Auwera, S, van Hemert, AM, Viktorin, A, Visscher, PM, Wang, Y, Webb, BT, Weinsheimer, SM, Wellmann, J, Willemsen, G, Witt, SH, Wu, Y, Xi, HS, Yang, J, Zhang, F, eQtlgen, and Me, Arolt, V, Baune, BT, Berger, K, Boomsma, DI, Cichon, S, Dannlowski, U, de Geus, ECJ, DePaulo, JR, Domenici, E, Domschke, K, Esko, T, Grabe, HJ, Hamilton, SP, Hayward, C, Heath, AC, Hinds, DA, Kendler, KS, Kloiber, S, Lewis, G, Li, QS, Lucae, S, Madden, PFA, Magnusson, PK, Martin, NG, McIntosh, AM, Metspalu, A, Mors, O, Mortensen, PB, Muller-Myhsok, B, Nordentoft, M, Nothen, MM, O'Donovan, MC, Paciga, SA, Pedersen, NL, Penninx, B, Perlis, RH, Porteous, DJ, Potash, JB, Preisig, M, Rietschel, M, Schaefer, C, Schulze, TG, Smoller, JW, Stefansson, K, Tiemeier, H, Uher, R, Volzke, H, Weissman, MM, Werge, T, Winslow, AR, Lewis, CM, Levinson, DF, Breen, G, Borglum, AD and Sullivan, PF, Major Depressive Disorder Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics C (2018) Genome-wide association analyses identify 44 risk variants and refine the genetic architecture of major depression. Nature Genet 50, 668–681.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Torvik et al. supplementary material

Tables S1-S4

Download Torvik et al. supplementary material(File)
File 40.5 KB