Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-01T02:06:51.191Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

American psychiatry in the new millennium: a critical appraisal

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 June 2021

Andrew Scull Open the ORCID record for Andrew Scull [Opens in a new window]
Andrew Scull*
Affiliation:
Sociology and Science Studies, University of California, San Diego, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Andrew Scull, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article casts a critical eye over the development of American psychiatry from 1980 to the present. It notes the rapid decline of psychoanalysis that followed the publication of DSM III; the rising influence of genetics and neuroscience; the re-emphasis on the biology of mental illness; and the collapse of public psychiatry that accompanied deinstitutionalization. It argues that while genetics and neuroscience have made scientific progress, the clinical utility of their findings to date has been very limited. The fifth edition of the DSM was supposed to base itself on this new science but that proved impossible. Diagnosis remains purely phenomenological and controversial. One of the ironies of research on psychiatric genetics is that has failed to find either a Mendelian origin of schizophrenia and depression or to validate the importance of hypothesized candidate genes. Genome-wide association studies have instead uncovered risk factors for major mental illnesses, but these overlap considerably, and the genetic associations are not dispositive. Most of those who carry these genetic variants do not develop mental illness. The status of psychopharmacology since the mid-1950s is scrutinized, as is the influence of the pharmaceutical industry on contemporary psychiatry, and the implications of its recent decision to abandon work in this arena. The paper concludes with an assessment of the crisis that it contends confronts contemporary American psychiatry: its overemphasis on biology; the urgent questions that persist about diagnosis and therapeutics; concerns about the directions of future research; and its inability to reduce the excess mortality that plagues the mentally ill.

Keywords

DeinstitutionalizationDiagnostic and Statistical ManualExcess Mortality of the Mentally Illgeneticsgenome-wide association studiesneurosciencepharmaceutical industry and American psychiatrypsychoanalysispublic psychiatry
Type
Invited Review
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 51 , Issue 16 , December 2021 , pp. 2762 - 2770
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Assembly of the American Psychiatric Association (2012). “Motion on cross-cutting dimensions and severity scales,” American Psychiatric Association Annual Meeting, New York.Google Scholar
Aviram, U., Syme, S., & Cohen, J. (1976). The effects of policies and programs on the reduction of mental hospitalization. Social Science and Medicine, 10, 571–577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bahrick, A. S. (2008). Persistence of sexual dysfunction side effects after discontinuation of antidepressant medications: Emerging evidence. Open Psychology Journal, 1, 42–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldessarini, R. J. (1980). Tardive dyskinesia: Report of the American Psychiatric Association task force on late neurological effects of antipsychotic drugs. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Bellick, P., & Carey, B. (2013). “Psychiatry's Guide Is Out of Touch with Science, Experts Say,” New York Times, May 6.Google Scholar
Berenson, A., Harris, G., Meier, B., & Pollack, A. (2004). “Despite Warnings, Drug Giant Took Long Path to Vioxx Recall,” New York Times, November 14.Google Scholar
Border, R., Johnson, E. C., Evans, L. M., Smolen, A., Berely, N., Sullivan, P., & Keller, M. C. (2019). No support for historical candidate gene or candidate gene-by-interaction hypotheses for major depression across multiple large samples. American Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 376–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boysen, G., & Ebersole, A. (2014). Expansion of the concept of mental disorder in the DSM-5. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 35, 225–244.Google Scholar
Brockington, I. F. (1992). Schizophrenia: Yesterday's concept. European Psychiatry, 7, 203–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bush, G. H. W. (1990). Presidential proclamation. The decade of the brain, 1990–1999. Federal Register 55, 29553.Google Scholar
Carey, B. (2012). “New Definition of Autism Will Exclude Many, Study Suggests,” New York Times, January 19.Google Scholar
Carlsson, A. (1990). Early psychopharmacology and the rise of modern brain research. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 4, 120–126.10.1177/026988119000400304CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cornett, E. M., Novitch, M., Kaye, A. D., Kata, V., & Kaye, A. M. (2017). Medication-Induced tardive dyskinesia: A review and update. Ochsner Journal, 17, 162–174.Google ScholarPubMed
Crane, G. (1973). Clinical psychopharmacology in its twentieth year. Science (New York, N.Y.), 181, 124–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cross-Disorder Psychiatric Genetics Consortium (2013). Genetic relationship between five psychiatric disorders estimated from genome-wide SNPs. Nature Genetics, 45, 984–994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crowe, R., Black, D. W., Wesner, R., Andreasen, N. C., Cookman, A., & Roby, J. (1991). Lack of linkage to chromosome 5q11-q13 markers in six schizophrenic pedigrees. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 357–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, J. (2017). How voting and consensus created the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-III). Anthropology and Medicine, 24, 32–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeAngelis, C. D., & Fontanarosa, P. B. (2008). Impugning the integrity of medical science: The adverse effects of industry influence. Journal of the American Medical Association, 299, 1833–1835.10.1001/jama.299.15.1833CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Decker, H. (2013). The making of DSM III: A diagnostic manual’s conquest of American psychiatry. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Detera-Wadleigh, S. D., Goldin, L. R., Sherrington, R., Encio, I., de Migual, C., Berretini, W., … Gerson, E. S. (1989). Exclusion of linkage to 5q11-13 in families with schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders. Nature, 340, 391–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrell, M. S., Werge, T., Owen, M. J., Ophoff, R. A., O'Donovan, M. C., Corvin, A., & Sullivan, P. F. (2015). Evaluating historical candidate genes for schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry, 20, 555–562.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, J. (2001). SSRI antidepressant medications: Adverse effects and tolerability. Primary Care Companion of the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 3, 22–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frances, A. (2009). Whither DSM-V? British Journal of Psychiatry, 195, 391–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frances, A. (2010). Opening Pandora's Box: The 19 worst suggestions for DSM-V. Psychiatric Times, 27(January 1), 1–10. http:www.psychiatrictimes.com/dsm-v/content/article/10168/1522341.Google Scholar
Frances, A. (2012). Two fallacies invalidate the DSM-5 field trials. Psychiatric Times, 27(1), January 9.Google Scholar
Frances, A. (2013a). The new crisis of confidence in psychiatric diagnosis. Annals of Internal Medicine, 159, 221–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frances, A. (2013b). Saving normal: An insider's revolt against out-of-control psychiatric diagnosis, DSM-5, Big pharma, and the medicalization of ordinary life. New York: Morrow.Google Scholar
Freedman, D. X. (1973). Neurological syndromes associated with antipsychotic drug Use. Archives of General Psychiatry, 28, 463–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gandal, M. J., Haney, J. R., Parishak, N. N., Leppa, V., Ramaswami, G., Hartl, C., & White, K. P. (2018). Shared molecular neuropathology across major psychiatric disorders parallels polygenetic overlap. Science (New York, N.Y.), 359, 693–697.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardos, G., & Cole, J. O. (1980). Overview: Public health issues in tardive dyskinesia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 776–780.Google ScholarPubMed
Geddes, J., Freemantle, N., Harrison, P., & Bebbington, P. (2000). Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: Systematic overview and meta-regression analysis. British Medical Journal, 321, 1371–1376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goffman, E. (1961). Asylums: Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Greenberg, G. (2013). The book of Woe: DSM and the unmaking of American psychiatry. New York: Blue Rider.Google Scholar
Grob, G. (1991). From asylum to community: Mental health policy in modern America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gronfein, W. (1985a). Psychotropic drugs and the origins of deinstitutionalization. Social Problems, 32, 437–454.10.2307/800774CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gronfein, W. (1985b). Incentives and intentions in mental health policy: A comparison of the medicaid and community mental health programs. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 26, 192–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guloksuz, S., & van Os, J. (2018). The slow death of the concept of schizophrenia and the painful birth of the psychosis spectrum. Psychological Medicine, 48, 229–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, G. (2008a). “Top Psychiatrist Didn't Report Drug Makers’ Pay,” New York Times, October 3.Google Scholar
Harris, G. (2008b). “Research Center Tied to Drug Company,” New York Times, November 28.Google Scholar
Harris, G., & Carey, B. (2008). “Researchers Fail to Reveal Full Drug Pay,” New York Times, June 8.Google Scholar
Healy, D. (1997). The anti-depressant Era. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Healy, D. (2004). The birth of psychopharmacology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Healy, D. (2012). Pharmaggedon. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horwitz, A. V. (2015). How did everyone get diagnosed with major depressive disorder? Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 58, 105–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horwitz, A.V. (2021). Psychiatry's Bible. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Horwitz, A. V., & Wakefield, J. (2007). The loss of sadness: How psychiatry transformed normal sorrow into depressive disorder. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Howes, O. D., & Murray, R. M. (2014). Schizophrenia: An integrated sociodevelopmental-cognitive model. Lancet (London, England), 383, 1677–1687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyman, S. (2007). Can neuroscience be integrated into the DSM-V? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8, 725–732.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyman, S. (2012). Cognition in neuropsychiatric disorders. Trends in Cognitive Science, 16, 3–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyman, S. (2013). “Psychiatric Drug Development: Diagnosing a Crisis,” Cerebrum 5. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662213/.Google Scholar
Hyman, S. (2021). Psychiatric disorders: Grounded in human biology but not natural kinds. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 64, 6–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jakobsen, J., Karakam, K. K., Schou, A., Hellmuth, S. G., Stallknecht, S. E., Leth-Møller, K., … Gluud, C. (2017). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors versus placebo in patients with major depressive disorder. A systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 17: 58. doi: 10.1186/s12888-016-1173-2.Google ScholarPubMed
Jeste, D., Caligiuri, M., & Paulsen, J. (1995). Risk of tardive dyskinesia in older patients: A prospective longitudinal study of 266 outpatients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 756–765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, E. C., Border, R., Melroy-Greif, W. E., de Leeuw, C., Ehringer, M. A., & Keller, M. C. (2017). No evidence that schizophrenia candidate genes are more associated with schizophrenia than non-candidate genes. Biological Psychiatry, 82, 702–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, K. D. (2012). A critique of the DSM-5 field trials. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 200, 517–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P. B., Barnes, T. R. E., Davies, L., Dunn, G., Lloyd, H., Hayhurst, K. P., & Murray, R. M. (2006). Randomized controlled trial of the effect on quality of life of second- vs first-generation antipsychotics in schizophrenia: Cost utility of the latest antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia (CUtLASS 1). Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 1079–1087.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jureidini, J., McHenry, L., & Mansfield, P. R. (2008). Clinical trials and drug promotion: Selective reporting of study 329. International Journal of Risk and Safety in Medicine, 20, 73–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, J. (2009). Senate probe of research psychiatrists. Science (New York, N.Y.) 325, 30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S. (2013a). A history of the DSM-5 scientific review committee. Psychological Medicine, 43, 1793–1800.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, K. S. (2013b). What psychiatric genetics has taught us about the nature of psychiatric illness and what is left to learn. Molecular Psychiatry, 18, 1058–1066.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, S. H., & Rizvi, S. (2009). Sexual dysfunction, depression, and the impact of antidepressants. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 29, 157–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, A., & Brown, W. (2015). Antidepressants versus placebo in major depression: An overview. World Psychiatry, 57, 294–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, J., Macmaster, E., & Schwartz, T. L. (2014). Tardive dyskinesia in patients treated with atypical antipsychotics: Case series and brief review of etiologic and treatment considerations. Drugs in Context, 9, 1–9. doi: 10.7573/dic.212259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinon, B. J., … (2015). Incidence of tardive dyskinesia in older adult patients treated with olanzapine or conventional antipsychotics. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 28, 67–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirk, S., & Thierren, M. (1975). Community mental health myths and the fate of formerly hospitalized patients. Psychiatry, 38, 209–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kline, N. (1968). On the rarity of ‘irreversible’ oral dyskinesias following phenothiazines. American Journal of Psychiatry, 124, 48–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraemer, H. C., Kupfer, D. J., Clarke, D. E., Narrow, W. E., & Regier, D. A. (2012). DSM-5: How reliable is reliable enough. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 13–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Regier, DA, (2002). A research agenda for DSM-V. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association Press.Google Scholar
Langefeld, C. S., & Steinman, M. A. (2009). The neurontin legacy: Marketing through misinformation and manipulation. New England Journal of Medicine, 360, 103–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, E. E., Liu, J., Palmer, B. W., Eyle, L. T., & Jeste, D. V. (2018). A widening longevity gap between people with schizophrenia and general population: A literature review and a call for action. Schizophrenia Research, 196, 9–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Legge, S. E., Santoro, M. L., Peryasamy, S., Okewole, A., Arsalan, A., & Kowalec, K. (2021). Genetic architecture of schizophrenia: A review of major advancements. Psychological Medicine, 51. February 8. doi: 10.1017/S0033291720005334.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerman, P. (1982). Deinstitutionalization and the welfare state. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Leucht, S., Cipriani, A., Spineli, L., Mavridis, D., Orey, D., Richter, M. S., … Davis, J. M. (2013). Comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: A multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet (London, England), 382, 951–962.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis-Fernandez, R., Rotheram, M. J., Betts, V. T., Greenman, L., Essock, S. M., Escober, J. I., & Iversen, P. (2016). Rethinking funding priorities in mental health research. British Journal of Psychiatry, 208, 507–509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, J., & Insel, T. (2013). Joint press release on DSM 5. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. May 14.Google Scholar
Lieberman, J., & Ogas, O. (2015). Shrinks: The untold story of psychiatry. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.Google Scholar
Lieberman, J., Stroup, T. S., McEvoy, J. P., Swartz, M. S., Rosenheck, R. A., Perkins, D. O., … Hsiao, J. K. (2005). Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in chronic schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine, 353, 1209–1223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieblich, S. M., Castle, D. J., Pantelis, C., Hopwood, M., Young, A. H., & Everall, I. P. (2015). High heterogeneity and low reliability in the diagnosis of major depression will impair the development of new drugs. British Journal of Psychiatry Open, 1, e5–e7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorca, P.-M. (2002). Tardive dyskinesia and antipsychotics: A review. European Psychiatry, 17, 129–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyon, E. (2019). “Imprisoning America's Mentally Ill,” Prison Legal News February: 22.Google Scholar
Major Depressive Working Group of the Psychiatric GWAS Consortium (2013). A mega-analysis of genome-wide association studies for major depressive disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 18, 497–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marmor, J. (1975). Psychiatrists and their patients: A national study of private office practice. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
McHenry, L., & Jureidini, J. (2008). Industry-sponsored ghost writing in clinical trial reporting: A case study. Accountability in Research, 15, 152–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mojtabai, R., & Olfson, M. (2011). National trends in psychotherapy by office-based psychiatrists. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 962–970.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mollica, R. (1981). From asylum to community: The threatened disintegration of public psychiatry. New England Journal of Medicine, 308, 267–273.Google Scholar
Moncrieff, J., Wessely, S., & Hardy, R. (1998). Meta-analysis of trials comparing antidepressants with active placebos. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 227–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montcrieff, J. (2013). The bitterest pills: The troubling story of antipsychotic drugs. London: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, C., Charalambides, M., Hutchinson, G., & Murray, R. M. (2010). Migration, ethnicity, and psychosis: Toward a sociodevelopmental model. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 36, 655–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, R. M. (2017). Mistakes I have made in my research career. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43, 253–256.Google Scholar
NIMH Psychopharmacology Service Center Collaborative Study (1964). Phenothiazine treatment of acute schizophrenia: Effectiveness. Archives of General Psychiatry, 10, 246–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Regalado, A. (2015). “Q. and A. with Tom Insel on his Decision to Join Alphabet,” MIT Technology Review, September 21.Google Scholar
Regier, D. A., Narrow, W. E., Clarke, D. E., Kraemer, H. C., Kuramoto, S. J., Kuhl, E. A., & Kupfer, D. J. (2013). DSM-5 Field trials in the United States and Canada part II: Test-retest reliability of selected categorical diagnoses. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 59–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Regier, D. A., Narrow, W. E., Kuhl, E. A., & Kupfer, D. J. (2009). The conceptual development of DSM-V. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 645–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Regier, D. A., Narrow, W. E., Rae, D. S., & Rubio-Stiper, M. (2005). Advancing form reliability to validity: The challenge for DSM-V/ICD 11 revisions. In Zorumski, C. F., & Rubin, E. H. (Eds.), Psychopathology in the Genome and Neuroscience Era (pp. 85–96). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Rose, S. (1979). Deciphering deinstitutionalization: Complexities in policy and analysis. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 57, 429–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosen, R. C., Lane, R. M., & Menza, M. (1999). Effects of SSRIs on sexual function: A critical review. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 19, 67–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saha, S., Chant, D., & McGrath, J. (2007). A systematic review of mortality in schizophrenia: Is the differential mortality gap worsening over time? Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1123–1131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schatzberg, A., Scully, J.H., Kupfer, D. J., & Regier, D. A. (2009). Setting the record straight: A response to Frances comments on DSM-V. Psychiatric Times 26: 8. July 1.Google Scholar
Schizophrenia Working group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (2014). Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci. Nature, 511, 421–427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schram, S. F. (2018). Neoliberalizing the welfare state: Marketizing social policy/disciplining clients. In Cahill, D. (Ed.), The sage handbook of neoliberalism (pp. 308–322). London: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scull, A. (1976). The decarceration of the mentally ill: A critical view. Politics and Society, 6, 173–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scull, A. (1977). Decarceration: Community treatment and the deviant: A radical view. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Scull, A. (2011a). The mental health sector and the social sciences in post-world war II USA. Part one: Total war and its aftermath. History of Psychiatry, 22, 3–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scull, A. (2011b). The mental health sector and the social sciences in post-World War II USA. Part two: The impact of federal funding and the drugs revolution. History of Psychiatry, 22, 268–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scull, A. (2021a). Mental illness and American social science. In Fontaine, P. and Pooley, J. (Eds.), Society on the Edge: Social science and public policy in the postwar United States (pp. 322–357). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Scull, A. (2021b). ’community care’: A historical perspective on deinstitutionalization. Perspectives on Biology and Medicine, 64, 70–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segal, S., & Aviram, U. (1978). The mentally Ill in community based sheltered care. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Sherrington, R., Brynjolfsson, J., Petersson, H., Potter, M., Dudleston, K., Barraclough, B., & Gurling, H. (1988). Localization of a susceptibility locus for schizophrenia on chromosome 5. Nature, 336, 164–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sismondo, S. (2007). Ghost management: How much of the medical literature is shaped behind the scenes by the pharmaceutical industry? Plos Medicine, 2, e138.Google Scholar
Spielman, G., & Parry, P. (2010). From evidence-based medicine to marketing-based medicine: Evidence from internal industry documents. Bioethical Inquiry, 7, 713–729.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. (2009). DSM-V Transparency: Fact or rhetoric? Psychiatric Times, 26: 3. March 7.Google Scholar
Staton, T. (2014). “Pfizer adds another $325 M to Neurontin Settlement. Total $945 M,” Fierce Pharma June 2.Google Scholar
St Clair, D., Blackwood, D., Muir, W., Baillie, D., Hubbard, A., Wright, A., & Evans, H. J. (1989). No linkage of chromosome 5q11-q13 markers to schizophrenia in Scottish families. Nature, 339, 305–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, P. F. (2008). Spurious genetic associations. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 1121–1126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, M. A. (2013). Hippocrates cried: The decline of American psychiatry. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Thacker, P. (2011). “How an Ethically Challenged Researcher Found a Home at the University of Miami,” Forbes, September 13.Google Scholar
Thomas, K. (2013). “J.&J. to pay $2.2 Billion in Risperdal Settlement,” New York Times, November 4.Google Scholar
Thomas, K., & Schmidt, M. (2013). “Glaxo Agrees to Pay $3 Billion in Fraud Settlement,” New York Times July 2.Google Scholar
Torrey, E. F., Kennard, A. D., Eslinger, D., Lamb, R., & Pavle, J. (2010). More mentally ill persons are in jails and prisons than hospitals: A survey of the states. Arlington, VA: Treatment Advocacy Center.Google Scholar
Torrey, E. F., & Yolken, R. H. (2020). Riches abound, so where are the trials for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder? Psychiatric Times, 37: 5. May 5.Google Scholar
Turner, A. M., Matthews, A. M., Linardatos, E., Tell, R. A., & Rosenthal, R. (2008). Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy. New England Journal of Medicine, 258, 252–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyrer, P., & Kendall, T. (2009). The spurious advance of antipsychotic drug therapy. Lancet (London, England), 373, 4–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uhler, R., & Rutter, M. (2012). Basing psychiatric classification on scientific foundations: Problems and prospects. International Review of Psychiatry, 24, 591–605.Google Scholar
Wacquant, L. (2009). Punishing the poor: The neo-liberal government of social insecurity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Wakefield, J. (2012). Should prolonged grief be reclassified as a mental disorder in DSM-5? Reconsidering the empirical and conceptual arguments for complicated grief disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 200, 499–511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitaker, R., & Cosgrove, L. (2015). Psychiatry under the influence: Institutional corruption, social injury, and prescriptions for reform. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whooley, O., & Horwitz, A. (2013). The paradox of professional success: Grand ambition, fierce resistance, and the derailment of the DSM-5 review process. In Paris, J., & Philips, J. (Eds.), Making the DSM-5: Concepts and controversies (pp. 75–92). New York: Springer Science and Business Media.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wislar, A., Flanagin, A., Fontanarosa, P. B., & DeAngelis, C. D. (2011). Honorary and ghost authorship in high impact biomedical journals. British Medical Journal 343: [Internet] https://www.bmj.com/content/343/bmj.d6128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, S., Taylor, M., & Lawrie, S. (2015). ’ First do no harm.’ A systematic review of the prevalence and management of antipsychotic adverse effects. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29, 353–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zachar, P., & First, M. (2015). Transitioning to a dimensional model of personality disorder in DSM 5.1 and beyond. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 28, 66–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed