Hostname: page-component-6dbcb7884d-64ff6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-13T19:28:40.093Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Specificity of basic information processing and inhibitory control in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2013

G. A. Salum ,
J. Sergeant ,
E. Sonuga-Barke ,
J. Vandekerckhove ,
A. Gadelha ,
P. M. Pan ,
T. S. Moriyama ,
A. S. Graeff-Martins ,
P. Gomes de Alvarenga  and
M. C. do Rosário
...Show all authors
G. A. Salum*
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
J. Sergeant
Affiliation:
Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
E. Sonuga-Barke
Affiliation:
University of Southampton, UK Ghent University, Belgium
J. Vandekerckhove
Affiliation:
University of California, USA
A. Gadelha
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil
P. M. Pan
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil
T. S. Moriyama
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil University of São Paulo, Brazil
A. S. Graeff-Martins
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil University of São Paulo, Brazil
P. Gomes de Alvarenga
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil University of São Paulo, Brazil
M. C. do Rosário
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil
G. G. Manfro
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
G. Polanczyk
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil University of São Paulo, Brazil
L. A. P. Rohde
Affiliation:
National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and Adolescents – CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil University of São Paulo, Brazil
*
*Address for correspondence: G. A. Salum, M.D. Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, room 2202, 90035-003 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. (Email:[email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Both inhibitory-based executive functioning (IB-EF) and basic information processing (BIP) deficits are found in clinic-referred attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) samples. However, it remains to be determined whether: (1) such deficits occur in non-referred samples of ADHD; (2) they are specific to ADHD; (3) the co-morbidity between ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder/conduct disorder (ODD/CD) has additive or interactive effects; and (4) IB-EF deficits are primary in ADHD or are due to BIP deficits.

Method

We assessed 704 subjects (age 6–12 years) from a non-referred sample using the Development and Well-Being Assessment (DAWBA) and classified them into five groups: typical developing controls (TDC; n = 378), Fear disorders (n = 90), Distress disorders (n = 57), ADHD (n = 100), ODD/CD (n = 40) and ADHD+ODD/CD (n = 39). We evaluated neurocognitive performance with a Two-Choice Reaction Time Task (2C-RT), a Conflict Control Task (CCT) and a Go/No-Go (GNG) task. We used a diffusion model (DM) to decompose BIP into processing efficiency, speed–accuracy trade-off and encoding/motor function along with variability parameters.

Results

Poorer processing efficiency was found to be specific to ADHD. Faster encoding/motor function differentiated ADHD from TDC and from fear/distress whereas a more cautious (not impulsive) response style differentiated ADHD from both TDC and ODD/CD. The co-morbidity between ADHD and ODD/CD reflected only additive effects. All ADHD-related IB-EF classical effects were fully moderated by deficits in BIP.

Conclusions

Our findings challenge the IB-EF hypothesis for ADHD and underscore the importance of processing efficiency as the key specific mechanism for ADHD pathophysiology.

Keywords

ADHDconduct disorderdepressionoppositional defiant disorderRatcliffspecificity
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 44 , Issue 3 , February 2014 , pp. 617 - 631
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alderson, RM, Rapport, MD, Kofler, MJ (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and behavioral inhibition: a meta-analytic review of the stop-signal paradigm. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 35, 745–758.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amorim, P, Lecrubier, Y, Weiller, E, Hergueta, T, Sheehan, D (1998). DSM-IH-R psychotic disorders: procedural validity of the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). Concordance and causes for discordance with the CIDI. European Psychiatry 13, 26–34.Google Scholar
Angold, A, Erkanli, A, Copeland, W, Goodman, R, Fisher, PW, Costello, EJ (2012). Psychiatric diagnostic interviews for children and adolescents: a comparative study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 51, 506–517.Google Scholar
August, GJ, Garfinkel, BD (1989). Behavioral and cognitive subtypes of ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 28, 739–748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banaschewski, T, Brandeis, D, Heinrich, H, Albrecht, B, Brunner, E, Rothenberger, A (2004). Questioning inhibitory control as the specific deficit of ADHD – evidence from brain electrical activity. Journal of Neural Transmission 111, 841–864.Google Scholar
Barkley, RA (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin 121, 65–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauermeister, JJ, Shrout, PE, Ramirez, R, Bravo, M, Alegria, M, Martinez-Taboas, A, Chavez, L, Rubio-Stipec, M, Garcia, P, Ribera, JC, Canino, G (2007). ADHD correlates, comorbidity, and impairment in community and treated samples of children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 35, 883–898.Google Scholar
Biederman, J (2004). Impact of comorbidity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65 (Suppl. 3), 3–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Biederman, J, Kwon, A, Aleardi, M, Chouinard, VA, Marino, T, Cole, H, Mick, E, Faraone, SV (2005). Absence of gender effects on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: findings in nonreferred subjects. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 1083–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bitsakou, P, Psychogiou, L, Thompson, M, Sonuga-Barke, EJ (2008). Inhibitory deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are independent of basic processing efficiency and IQ. Journal of Neural Transmission 115, 261–268.Google Scholar
Brandeis, D, van Leeuwen, TH, Rubia, K, Vitacco, D, Steger, J, Pascual-Marqui, RD, Steinhausen, HC (1998). Neuroelectric mapping reveals precursor of stop failures in children with attention deficits. Behavioural Brain Research 94, 111–125.Google Scholar
Castellanos, FX, Sonuga-Barke, EJ, Scheres, A, Di Martino, A, Hyde, C, Walters, JR (2005). Varieties of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-related intra-individual variability. Biological Psychiatry 57, 1416–1423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chamberlain, SR, Robbins, TW, Winder-Rhodes, S, Muller, U, Sahakian, BJ, Blackwell, AD, Barnett, JH (2011). Translational approaches to frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder using a computerized neuropsychological battery. Biological Psychiatry 69, 1192–1203.Google Scholar
Clark, C, Prior, M, Kinsella, GJ (2000). Do executive function deficits differentiate between adolescents with ADHD and oppositional defiant/conduct disorder? A neuropsychological study using the Six Elements Test and Hayling Sentence Completion Test. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 28, 403–414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coghill, DR, Rhodes, SM, Matthews, K (2007). The neuropsychological effects of chronic methylphenidate on drug-naive boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 62, 954–962.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ.Google Scholar
Cohen, P, Cohen, J (1984). The clinician's illusion. Archives of General Psychiatry 41, 1178–1182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connor, DF, Edwards, G, Fletcher, KE, Baird, J, Barkley, RA, Steingard, RJ (2003). Correlates of comorbid psychopathology in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42, 193–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Di Martino, A, Ghaffari, M, Curchack, J, Reiss, P, Hyde, C, Vannucci, M, Petkova, E, Klein, DF, Castellanos, FX (2008). Decomposing intra-subject variability in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 64, 607–614.Google Scholar
Faraone, SV, Biederman, J, Keenan, K, Tsuang, MT (1991). Separation of DSM-III attention deficit disorder and conduct disorder: evidence from a family-genetic study of American child psychiatric patients. Psychological Medicine 21, 109–121.Google Scholar
Favre, T, Hughes, C, Emslie, G, Stavinoha, P, Kennard, B, Carmody, T (2009). Executive functioning in children and adolescents with major depressive disorder. Child Neuropsychology 15, 85–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Figueiredo, VLM (2001). Brazilian version of WISC-III intelligence test. Curso de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia, Instituto de Psicologia, Universidade de Brasília: Brasília, DF.Google Scholar
Fischer, M, Barkley, RA, Smallish, L, Fletcher, K (2005). Executive functioning in hyperactive children as young adults: attention, inhibition, response perseveration, and the impact of comorbidity. Developmental Neuropsychology 27, 107–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foreman, D, Morton, S, Ford, T (2009). Exploring the clinical utility of the Development And Well-Being Assessment (DAWBA) in the detection of hyperkinetic disorders and associated diagnoses in clinical practice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 50, 460–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geurts, HM, Grasman, RP, Verte, S, Oosterlaan, J, Roeyers, H, van Kammen, SM, Sergeant, JA (2008). Intra-individual variability in ADHD, autism spectrum disorders and Tourette's syndrome. Neuropsychologia 46, 3030–3041.Google Scholar
Geurts, HM, Verte, S, Oosterlaan, J, Roeyers, H, Sergeant, JA (2004). How specific are executive functioning deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 45, 836–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillberg, C, Gillberg, IC, Rasmussen, P, Kadesjo, B, Soderstrom, H, Rastam, M, Johnson, M, Rothenberger, A, Niklasson, L (2004). Co-existing disorders in ADHD – implications for diagnosis and intervention. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 13 (Suppl. 1), I80–I92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, R, Ford, T, Richards, H, Gatward, R, Meltzer, H (2000). The Development and Well-Being Assessment: description and initial validation of an integrated assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 41, 645–655.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helps, SK, Broyd, SJ, Bitsakou, P, Sonuga-Barke, EJ (2011). Identifying a distinctive familial frequency band in reaction time fluctuations in ADHD. Neuropsychology 25, 711–719.Google Scholar
Hobson, CW, Scott, S, Rubia, K (2011). Investigation of cool and hot executive function in ODD/CD independently of ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 52, 1035–1043.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hogan, AM, Vargha-Khadem, F, Kirkham, FJ, Baldeweg, T (2005). Maturation of action monitoring from adolescence to adulthood: an ERP study. Developmental Science 8, 525–534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang-Pollock, CL, Karalunas, SL, Tam, H, Moore, AN (2012). Evaluating vigilance deficits in ADHD: a meta-analysis of CPT performance. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 121, 360–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hummer, TA, Kronenberger, WG, Wang, Y, Dunn, DW, Mosier, KM, Kalnin, AJ, Mathews, VP (2011). Executive functioning characteristics associated with ADHD comorbidity in adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 39, 11–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karalunas, SL, Huang-Pollock, CL (2013). Integrating impairments in reaction time and executive function using a diffusion model framework. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. Published online: 20 01 2013 . doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9715-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karalunas, SL, Huang-Pollock, CL, Nigg, JT (2012). Decomposing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)-related effects in response speed and variability. Neuropsychology 26, 684–694.Google Scholar
Kendler, KS, Prescott, CA, Myers, J, Neale, MC (2003). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 929–937.Google Scholar
Konrad, K, Gauggel, S, Manz, A, Scholl, M (2000). Lack of inhibition: a motivational deficit in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and children with traumatic brain injury. Child Neuropsychology 6, 286–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korenblum, CB, Chen, SX, Manassis, K, Schachar, RJ (2007). Performance monitoring and response inhibition in anxiety disorders with and without comorbid ADHD. Depression and Anxiety 24, 227–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, RF (1999). The structure of common mental disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 921–926.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuntsi, J, Klein, C (2012). Intraindividual variability in ADHD and its implications for research of causal links. Current Topics in Behavioral Neuroscience 9, 67–91.Google Scholar
Kuntsi, J, Wood, AC, Van Der Meere, J, Asherson, P (2009). Why cognitive performance in ADHD may not reveal true potential: findings from a large population-based sample. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 15, 570–579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahey, BB, Van Hulle, CA, Singh, AL, Waldman, ID, Rathouz, PJ (2011). Higher-order genetic and environmental structure of prevalent forms of child and adolescent psychopathology. Archives of General Psychiatry 68, 181–189.Google Scholar
Lehmann, EL (1975). Nonparametrics: Statistical Methods Based on Ranks. Holden-Day: San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Lijffijt, M, Kenemans, JL, Verbaten, MN, van Engeland, H (2005). A meta-analytic review of stopping performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: deficient inhibitory motor control? Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114, 216–222.Google Scholar
Lipszyc, J, Schachar, R (2010). Inhibitory control and psychopathology: a meta-analysis of studies using the stop signal task. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 16, 1064–1076.Google Scholar
Logan, GD, Cowan, WB, Davis, KA (1984). On the ability to inhibit simple and choice reaction time responses: a model and a method. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 10, 276–291.Google Scholar
Luman, M, van Noesel, SJ, Papanikolau, A, Van Oostenbruggen-Scheffer, J, Veugelers, D, Sergeant, JA, Oosterlaan, J (2009). Inhibition, reinforcement sensitivity and temporal information processing in ADHD and ADHD+ODD: evidence of a separate entity? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 37, 1123–1135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maniadaki, K, Sonuga-Barke, E, Kakouros, E (2006). Adults' self-efficacy beliefs and referral attitudes for boys and girls with AD/HD. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 15, 132–140.Google Scholar
Matthews, K, Coghill, D, Rhodes, S (2008). Neuropsychological functioning in depressed adolescent girls. Journal of Affective Disorders 111, 113–118.Google Scholar
Metin, B, Roeyers, H, Wiersema, R, van der Meere, J, Thompson, M, Sonuga-Barke, E (in press). ADHD performance reflects inefficient but not impulsive information processing: a diffusion model analysis. Neuropsychology.Google Scholar
Mulder, MJ, Bos, D, Weusten, JM, van Belle, J, van Dijk, SC, Simen, P, van Engeland, H, Durston, S (2010). Basic impairments in regulating the speed-accuracy tradeoff predict symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 68, 1114–1119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oosterlaan, J, Logan, GD, Sergeant, JA (1998). Response inhibition in AD/HD, CD, comorbid AD/HD + CD, anxious, and control children: a meta-analysis of studies with the stop task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 39, 411–425.Google ScholarPubMed
Oosterlaan, J, Scheres, A, Sergeant, JA (2005). Which executive functioning deficits are associated with AD/HD, ODD/CD and comorbid AD/HD + ODD/CD? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 33, 69–85.Google Scholar
Pajer, K, Chung, J, Leininger, L, Wang, W, Gardner, W, Yeates, K (2008). Neuropsychological function in adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 47, 416–425.Google Scholar
Parisi, D (1997). Artificial life and higher level cognition. Brain and Cognition 34, 160–184.Google Scholar
Pliszka, SR, Liotti, M, Woldorff, MG (2000). Inhibitory control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: event-related potentials identify the processing component and timing of an impaired right-frontal response-inhibition mechanism. Biological Psychiatry 48, 238–246.Google Scholar
Polanczyk, G, Rohde, LA, Szobot, C, Schmitz, M, Montiel-Nava, C, Bauermeister, JJ (2008). ADHD treatment in Latin America and the Caribbean. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 47, 721–722.Google Scholar
Qian, Y, Shuai, L, Cao, Q, Chan, RC, Wang, Y (2010). Do executive function deficits differentiate between children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and ADHD comorbid with oppositional defiant disorder? A cross-cultural study using performance-based tests and the behavior rating inventory of executive function. Clinical Neuropsychology 24, 793–810.Google Scholar
Quay, HC (1997). Inhibition and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 25, 7–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ratcliff, R (1979). Group reaction time distributions and an analysis of distribution statistics. Psychological Bulletin 86, 446–461.Google Scholar
Ratcliff, R, McKoon, G (1988). A retrieval theory of priming in memory. Psychological Review 95, 385–408.Google Scholar
Rhodes, SM, Coghill, DR, Matthews, K (2006). Acute neuropsychological effects of methylphenidate in stimulant drug-naive boys with ADHD II – broader executive and non-executive domains. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 47, 1184–1194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhodes, SM, Park, J, Seth, S, Coghill, DR (2012). A comprehensive investigation of memory impairment in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 53, 128–137.Google Scholar
Rommelse, NN, Altink, ME, de Sonneville, LM, Buschgens, CJ, Buitelaar, J, Oosterlaan, J, Sergeant, JA (2007). Are motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility dead ends in ADHD? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 35, 957–967.Google Scholar
Rommelse, NN, Altink, ME, Fliers, EA, Martin, NC, Buschgens, CJ, Hartman, CA, Buitelaar, JK, Faraone, SV, Sergeant, JA, Oosterlaan, J (2009). Comorbid problems in ADHD: degree of association, shared endophenotypes, and formation of distinct subtypes. Implications for a future DSM. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 37, 793–804.Google Scholar
Salum, GA, Mogg, K, Bradley, BP, Gadelha, A, Pan, P, Tamanaha, A, Moriyama, T, Graeff-Martins, A, Jarros, RB, Polanczyk, GV, Rosário, M, Leibenluff, E, Rohde, LA, Manfro, GG, Pine, DS (2012). Threat bias in attention orienting: evidence of specificity in a large community-based study (http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/id/eprint/340846).Google Scholar
Scheres, A, Oosterlaan, J, Sergeant, JA (2001). Response inhibition in children with DSM-IV subtypes of AD/HD and related disruptive disorders: the role of reward. Child Neuropsychology 7, 172–189.Google Scholar
Schoemaker, K, Bunte, T, Wiebe, SA, Espy, KA, Dekovic, M, Matthys, W (2012). Executive function deficits in preschool children with ADHD and DBD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 53, 111–119.Google Scholar
Sergeant, J (2000). The cognitive-energetic model: an empirical approach to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24, 7–12.Google Scholar
Sergeant, J, van der Meere, J (1990). Additive factor method applied to psychopathology with special reference to childhood hyperactivity. Acta Psychologica (Amsterdam) 74, 277–295.Google Scholar
Sergeant, JA, Geurts, H, Oosterlaan, J (2002). How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Behavioural Brain Research 130, 3–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sergeant, JA, Scholten, CA (1985 a). On data limitations in hyperactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 26, 111–124.Google Scholar
Sergeant, JA, Scholten, CA (1985 b). On resource strategy limitations in hyperactivity: cognitive impulsivity reconsidered. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 26, 97–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheehan, DV, Lecrubier, Y, Sheehan, KH, Amorim, P, Janavs, J, Weiller, E, Hergueta, T, Baker, R, Dunbar, GC (1998). The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 59 (Suppl. 20), 22–33; quiz 34–57.Google ScholarPubMed
Slusarek, M, Velling, S, Bunk, D, Eggers, C (2001). Motivational effects on inhibitory control in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 40, 355–363.Google Scholar
Sonuga-Barke, EJ (2010). Disambiguating inhibitory dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: toward the decomposition of developmental brain phenotypes. Biological Psychiatry 67, 599–601.Google Scholar
Sonuga-Barke, EJ, Castellanos, FX (2007). Spontaneous attentional fluctuations in impaired states and pathological conditions: a neurobiological hypothesis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 31, 977–986.Google Scholar
Stein, RE, Horwitz, SM, Storfer-Isser, A, Heneghan, AM, Hoagwood, KE, Kelleher, KJ, O'Connor, KG, Olson, L (2009). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: how much responsibility are pediatricians taking? Pediatrics 123, 248–255.Google Scholar
Swanson, J, Baler, RD, Volkow, ND (2011). Understanding the effects of stimulant medications on cognition in individuals with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a decade of progress. Neuropsychopharmacology 36, 207–226.Google Scholar
Tellegen, A, Briggs, PF (1967). Old wine in new skins: grouping Wechsler subtests into new scales. Journal of Consulting Psychology 31, 499–506.Google Scholar
Toren, P, Sadeh, M, Wolmer, L, Eldar, S, Koren, S, Weizman, R, Laor, N (2000). Neurocognitive correlates of anxiety disorders in children: a preliminary report. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 14, 239–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trommer, BL, Hoeppner, JA, Lorber, R, Armstrong, KJ (1988). The go-no-go paradigm in attention deficit disorder. Annals of Neurology 24, 610–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trosper, SE, Whitton, SW, Brown, TA, Pincus, DB (2012). Understanding the latent structure of the emotional disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 40, 621–632.Google Scholar
Vandekerckhove, J, Tuerlinckx, F (2007). Fitting the Ratcliff diffusion model to experimental data. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 14, 1011–1026.Google Scholar
Vandekerckhove, J, Tuerlinckx, F, Lee, MD (2011). Hierarchical diffusion models for two-choice response times. Psychological Methods 16, 44–62.Google Scholar
Vitola, ES, Salgado, CA, Silva, KL, Karam, RG, Victor, MM, Mota, NR, Contini, V, Picon, FA, Guimaraes-da-Silva, PO, Giordani, RS, Rohde, LA, Belmonte-de-Abreu, P, Bau, CH, Grevet, EH (2012). The role of a lifetime history of oppositional defiant and conduct disorders in adults with ADHD: implications for clinical practice. CNS Spectrums 17, 94–99.Google Scholar
Vollebergh, WA, Iedema, J, Bijl, RV, de Graaf, R, Smit, F, Ormel, J (2001). The structure and stability of common mental disorders: the NEMESIS study. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 597–603.Google Scholar
Waldman, ID, Slutske, WS (2000). Antisocial behavior and alcoholism: a behavioral genetic perspective on comorbidity. Clinical Psychology Review 20, 255–287.Google Scholar
Watson, D (2005). Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders: a quantitative hierarchical model for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114, 522–536.Google Scholar
Watson, D, O'Hara, MW, Stuart, S (2008). Hierarchical structures of affect and psychopathology and their implications for the classification of emotional disorders. Depression and Anxiety 25, 282–288.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D (2002). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Casa do Psicólogo: São Paulo, Brazil.Google Scholar
Weissman, MM, Wickramaratne, P, Adams, P, Wolk, S, Verdeli, H, Olfson, M (2000). Brief screening for family psychiatric history: the Family History Screen. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 675–682.Google Scholar
White, CN, Ratcliff, R, Vasey, MW, McKoon, G (2010). Using diffusion models to understand clinical disorders. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 54, 39–52.Google Scholar
Willcutt, EG, Doyle, AE, Nigg, JT, Faraone, SV, Pennington, BF (2005 a). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry 57, 1336–1346.Google Scholar
Willcutt, EG, Pennington, BF, Olson, RK, Chhabildas, N, Hulslander, J (2005 b). Neuropsychological analyses of comorbidity between reading disability and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: in search of the common deficit. Developmental Neuropsychology 27, 35–78.Google Scholar
Wood, AC, Buitelaar, J, Rijsdijk, F, Asherson, P, Kuntsi, J (2010). Rethinking shared environment as a source of variance underlying attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms: comment on Burt (2009). Psychological Bulletin 136, 331–340.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Salum Supplementary Material

Salum Supplementary Material

Download Salum Supplementary Material(File)
File 67.1 KB