Hostname: page-component-669899f699-tpknm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-25T02:50:40.165Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Evolution of neuropsychological dysfunction during the course of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 May 2010

K. E. Lewandowski ,
B. M. Cohen  and
D. Öngur
K. E. Lewandowski*
Affiliation:
McLean Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
B. M. Cohen
Affiliation:
McLean Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
D. Öngur
Affiliation:
McLean Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: Dr K. E. Lewandowski, AB347, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, USA. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Neurocognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia (SZ), bipolar (BD) and related disorders represents a core feature of these illnesses, possibly a marker of underlying pathophysiology. Substantial overlap in domains of neuropsychological deficits has been reported among these disorders after illness onset. However, it is unclear whether deficits follow the same longitudinal pre- and post-morbid course across diagnoses. We examine evidence for neurocognitive dysfunction as a core feature of all idiopathic psychotic illnesses, and trace its evolution from pre-morbid and prodromal states through the emergence of overt psychosis and into chronic illness in patients with SZ, BD and related disorders.

Method

Articles reporting on neuropsychological functioning in patients with SZ, BD and related disorders before and after illness onset were reviewed. Given the vast literature on these topics and the present focus on cross-diagnostic comparisons, priority was given to primary data papers that assessed cross-diagnostic samples and recent meta-analyses.

Results

Patients with SZ exhibit dysfunction preceding the onset of illness, which becomes more pronounced in the prodrome and early years following diagnosis, then settles into a stable pattern. Patients with BD generally exhibit typical cognitive development pre-morbidly, but demonstrate deficits by first episode that are amplified with worsening symptoms and exacerbations.

Conclusions

Neuropsychological deficits represent a core feature of SZ and BD; however, their onset and progression differ between diagnostic groups. A lifetime perspective on the evolution of neurocognitive deficits in SZ and BD reveals distinct patterns, and may provide a useful guide to the examination of the pathophysiological processes underpinning these functions across disorders.

Keywords

Bipolarcognitivelongitudinalpremorbidschizophrenia
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 41 , Issue 2 , February 2011 , pp. 225 - 241
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aloia, MS, Gourovitch, ML, Weinberger, DR, Goldberg, TE (1996). An investigation of semantic space in patients with schizophrenia. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2, 267–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altshuler, LL, Ventura, J, van Gorp, WG, Green, MF, Theberge, DC, Mintz, J (2004). Neurocognitive function in clinically stable men with bipolar I disorder or schizophrenia and normal control subjects. Biological Psychiatry 56, 560–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andreasen, NC (1999). A unitary model of schizophrenia. Bleuler's ‘Fragmented Phrene’ as schizencephaly. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 781–787.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andreasen, NC, Flaum, M, Swayze, VW, Tyrrell, G 2nd, Arndt, S (1990). Positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia. A critical reappraisal. Archives of General Psychiatry 47, 615–621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asarnow, RF, MacCrimmon, DJ (1978). Residual performance deficit in clinically remitted schizophrenics: a marker of schizophrenia? Journal of Abnormal Psychology 87, 597–608.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balanza-Martinez, V, Tabares-Seisdedos, R, Selva-Vera, G, Martinez-Aran, A, Torrent, C, Salazar-Fraile, J, Leal-Cercos, C, Vieta, E, Gomez-Beneyto, M (2005). Persistent cognitive dysfunctions in bipolar I disorder and schizophrenic patients: a 3-year follow-up study. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 74, 113–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrett, SL, Mulholland, CC, Cooper, SJ, Rushe, TM (2009). Patterns of neurocognitive impairment in first-episode bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 195, 67–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bearden, CE, Jawad, AF, Lynch, DR, Sokol, S, Kanes, SJ, McDonald-McGinn, DM, Saitta, SC, Harris, SE, Moss, E, Wang, PP, Zackai, E, Emanuel, BS, Simon, TJ (2004). Effects of a functional COMT polymorphism on prefrontal cognitive function in patients with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 1700–1702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker, HE, Nieman, DH, Wiltink, S, Dingemans, PM, van de Fliert, JR, Velthorst, E, de Haan, L, van Amelsvoort, TA, Linszen, DH (2010). Neurocognitive functioning before and after the first psychotic episode: does psychosis result in cognitive deterioration? Psychological Medicine. Published online: 5 February 2010. doi:10.1017/S0033291710000048.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berman, I, Viegner, B, Merson, A, Allan, E, Pappas, D, Green, AI (1997). Differential relationships between positive and negative symptoms and neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 25, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bilder, RM, Reiter, G, Bates, J, Lencz, T, Szeszko, P, Goldman, RS, Robinson, D, Lieberman, JA, Kane, JM (2006). Cognitive development in schizophrenia: follow-back from the first episode. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 28, 270–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brazo, P, Marie, RM, Halbecq, I, Benali, K, Segard, L, Delamillieure, P, Langlois-Thery, S, Van Der Elst, A, Thibaut, F, Petit, M, Dollfus, S (2002). Cognitive patterns in subtypes of schizophrenia. European Psychiatry 17, 155–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brickman, AM, Buchsbaum, MS, Bloom, R, Bokhoven, P, Paul-Odouard, R, Haznedar, MM, Dahlman, KL, Hazlett, EA, Aronowitz, J, Heath, D, Shihabuddin, L (2004). Neuropsychological functioning in first-break, never-medicated adolescents with psychosis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 192, 615–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, M, Walsh, E, Hollis, C, Kargin, M, Taylor, E, Murray, RM, Jones, PB (2001). Predictors of later schizophrenia and affective psychosis among attendees at a child psychiatry department. British Journal of Psychiatry 178, 420–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, CS, Barch, DM (2007). Cognitive neuroscience-based approaches to measuring and improving treatment effects on cognition in schizophrenia: the CNTRICS initiative. Schizophrenia Bulletin 33, 1131–1137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casey, BJ, Giedd, JN, Thomas, KM (2000). Structural and functional brain development and its relation to cognitive development. Biological Psychology 54, 241–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A, Reichenberg, A, Weiser, M, Rabinowitz, J, Kaplan, Z, Knobler, H, Davidson-Sagi, N, Davidson, M (2003). Cognitive performance in schizophrenia patients assessed before and following the first psychotic episode. Schizophrenia Research 65, 87–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chugani, H, Chugani, D (1997). Positron emission tomography studies of developing brain. In Neurodevelopment and Adult Psychopathology (ed. Keshavan, M. and Murray, R.), pp. 93–103. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.Google Scholar
Cohen, JD, Braver, TS, O'Reilly, RC (1996). A computational approach to prefrontal cortex, cognitive control and schizophrenia: recent developments and current challenges. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 351, 1515–1527.Google Scholar
Cornblatt, BA, Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L (1985). Global attentional deviance as a marker of risk for schizophrenia: specificity and predictive validity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 94, 470–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cornblatt, BA, Lenzenweger, MF, Dworkin, RH, Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L (1992). Childhood attentional dysfunctions predict social deficits in unaffected adults at risk for schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 18 (Suppl.), 59–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cornblatt, BA, Lenzenweger, MF, Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L (1989). The continuous performance test, identical pairs version: II. Contrasting attentional profiles in schizophrenic and depressed patients. Psychiatry Research 29, 65–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craddock, N, O'Donovan, MC, Owen, MJ (2006). Genes for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder? Implications for psychiatric nosology. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 9–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, WR (1987). Intellectual abilities and age. Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics 7, 117–134.Google ScholarPubMed
Cvetic, T, Vukovic, O (2006). Cognitive deficit in schizophrenia: comparative analysis of positive and negative subtype and predictors of positive subtype. Psychiatria Danubina 18, 4–11.Google ScholarPubMed
Davidson, M, Reichenberg, A, Rabinowitz, J, Weiser, M, Kaplan, Z, Mark, M (1999). Behavioral and intellectual markers for schizophrenia in apparently healthy male adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 1328–1335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denicoff, KD, Ali, SO, Mirsky, AF, Smith-Jackson, EE, Leverich, GS, Duncan, CC, Connell, EG, Post, RM (1999). Relationship between prior course of illness and neuropsychological functioning in patients with bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders 56, 67–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Depp, CA, Moore, DJ, Sitzer, D, Palmer, BW, Eyler, LT, Roesch, S, Lebowitz, BD, Jeste, DV (2007). Neurocognitive impairment in middle-aged and older adults with bipolar disorder: comparison to schizophrenia and normal comparison subjects. Journal of Affective Disorders 101, 201–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, F, Boronow, JJ, Stallings, C, Origoni, AE, Cole, SK, Yolken, RH (2004). Cognitive functioning in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: comparison of performance on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status. Psychiatry Research 129, 45–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickinson, D, Gold, JM (2008). Less unique variance than meets the eye: overlap among traditional neuropsychological dimensions in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 34, 423–434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickinson, D, Iannone, VN, Wilk, CM, Gold, JM (2004). General and specific cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 55, 826–833.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickinson, D, Ragland, JD, Calkins, ME, Gold, JM, Gur, RC (2006). A comparison of cognitive structure in schizophrenia patients and healthy controls using confirmatory factor analysis. Schizophrenia Research 85, 20–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickinson, D, Ragland, JD, Gold, JM, Gur, RC (2008). General and specific cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: Goliath defeats David? Biological Psychiatry 64, 823–827.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ditman, T, Kuperberg, GR (2005). A source-monitoring account of auditory verbal hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 13, 280–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dixon, T, Kravariti, E, Frith, C, Murray, RM, McGuire, PK (2004). Effect of symptoms on executive function in bipolar illness. Psychological Medicine 34, 811–821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donaldson, S, Goldstein, LH, Landau, S, Raymont, V, Frangou, S (2003). The Maudsley Bipolar Disorder Project: the effect of medication, family history, and duration of illness on IQ and memory in bipolar I disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 64, 86–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drane, DL, Meador, KJ (1996). Epilepsy, anticonvulsant drugs and cognition. Baillière's Clinical Neurology 5, 877–885.Google ScholarPubMed
Elie, D, Poirier, M, Chianetta, J, Durand, M, Gregoire, C, Grignon, S (2009). Cognitive effects of antipsychotic dosage and polypharmacy: a study with the BACS in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology. Published online: 22 January 2009. doi:10.1177/0269881108100777.Google ScholarPubMed
Elliott, R, McKenna, PJ, Robbins, TW, Sahakian, BJ (1995). Neuropsychological evidence for frontostriatal dysfunction in schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 25, 619–630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engelsmann, F, Katz, J, Ghadirian, AM, Schachter, D (1988). Lithium and memory: a long-term follow-up study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 8, 207–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L (2000). Neurobehavioral deficits in offspring of schizophrenic parents: liability indicators and predictors of illness. American Journal of Medical Genetics 97, 65–71.3.0.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L, Rock, D, Roberts, SA, Janal, M, Kestenbaum, C, Cornblatt, B, Adamo, UH, Gottesman, II (2000). Attention, memory, and motor skills as childhood predictors of schizophrenia-related psychoses: the New York High-Risk Project. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 1416–1422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller, R, Nopoulos, P, Arndt, S, O'Leary, D, Ho, BC, Andreasen, NC (2002). Longitudinal assessment of premorbid cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia through examination of standardized scholastic test performance. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 1183–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Genderson, MR, Dickinson, D, Diaz-Asper, CM, Egan, MF, Weinberger, DR, Goldberg, TE (2007). Factor analysis of neurocognitive tests in a large sample of schizophrenic probands, their siblings, and healthy controls. Schizophrenia Research 94, 231–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giedd, JN, Jeffries, NO, Blumenthal, J, Castellanos, FX, Vaituzis, AC, Fernandez, T, Hamburger, SD, Liu, H, Nelson, J, Bedwell, J, Tran, L, Lenane, M, Nicolson, R, Rapoport, JL (1999). Childhood-onset schizophrenia: progressive brain changes during adolescence. Biological Psychiatry 46, 892–898.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glahn, DC, Bearden, CE, Barguil, M, Barrett, J, Reichenberg, A, Bowden, CL, Soares, JC, Velligan, DI (2007). The neurocognitive signature of psychotic bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry 62, 910–916.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glahn, DC, Bearden, CE, Cakir, S, Barrett, JA, Najt, P, Serap Monkul, E, Maples, N, Velligan, DI, Soares, JC (2006). Differential working memory impairment in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: effects of lifetime history of psychosis. Bipolar Disorders 8, 117–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, JM, Harvey, PD (1993). Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 16, 295–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, S, Arndt, S, Nopoulos, P, O'Leary, DS, Andreasen, NC (1999). Longitudinal study of cognitive function in first-episode and recent-onset schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 1342–1348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, JF, Burdick, KE (2001). Cognitive side effects of anticonvulsants. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 62 (Suppl. 14), 27–33.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, TE, Hyde, TM, Kleinman, JE, Weinberger, DR (1993). Course of schizophrenia: neuropsychological evidence for a static encephalopathy. Schizophrenia Bulletin 19, 797–804.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman-Rakic, P (1994). Working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 6, 348–357.Google ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez-Blanch, C, Alvarez-Jimenez, M, Rodriguez-Sanchez, JM, Perez-Iglesias, R, Vazquez-Barquero, JL, Crespo-Facorro, B (2006). Cognitive functioning in the early course of first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders: timing and patterns. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 256, 364–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, M (1996). What are the functional consequences of neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia? American Journal of Psychiatry 153, 321–330.Google ScholarPubMed
Green, MF, Kern, RS, Braff, DL, Mintz, J (2000). Neurocognitive deficits and functional outcome in schizophrenia: are we measuring the ‘right stuff’? Schizophrenia Bulletin 26, 119–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, MF, Nuechterlein, KH, Gold, JM, Barch, DM, Cohen, J, Essock, S, Fenton, WS, Frese, F, Goldberg, TE, Heaton, RK, Keefe, RS, Kern, RS, Kraemer, H, Stover, E, Weinberger, DR, Zalcman, S, Marder, SR (2004). Approaching a consensus cognitive battery for clinical trials in schizophrenia: the NIMH-MATRICS conference to select cognitive domains and test criteria. Biological Psychiatry 56, 301–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruber, SA, Rosso, IM, Yurgelun-Todd, D (2008). Neuropsychological performance predicts clinical recovery in bipolar patients. Journal of Affective Disorders 105, 253–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, PD (2009). When does cognitive decline occur in the period prior to the first episode of schizophrenia? Psychiatry (Edgmont) 6, 12–14.Google Scholar
Harvey, PD, Hassman, H, Mao, L, Gharabawi, GM, Mahmoud, RA, Engelhart, LM (2007). Cognitive functioning and acute sedative effects of risperidone and quetiapine in patients with stable bipolar I disorder: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 68, 1186–1194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, PD, Keefe, RS (2001). Studies of cognitive change in patients with schizophrenia following novel antipsychotic treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 176–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, PD, Keefe, RS, Moskowitz, J, Putnam, KM, Mohs, RC, Davis, KL (1990). Attentional markers of vulnerability to schizophrenia: performance of medicated and unmedicated patients and normals. Psychiatry Research 33, 179–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, KA, Addington, J, Keefe, RS, Christensen, B, Perkins, DO, Zipurksy, R, Woods, SW, Miller, TJ, Marquez, E, Breier, A, McGlashan, TH (2004). Neuropsychological status of subjects at high risk for a first episode of psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 67, 115–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, KA, Keefe, RS, Christensen, BK, Addington, J, Woods, SW, Callahan, J, Zipursky, RB, Perkins, DO, Tohen, M, Breier, A, McGlashan, TH (2008). Neuropsychological course in the prodrome and first episode of psychosis: findings from the PRIME North America Double Blind Treatment Study. Schizophrenia Research 105, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heaton, RK, Gladsjo, JA, Palmer, BW, Kuck, J, Marcotte, TD, Jeste, DV (2001). Stability and course of neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 24–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heckers, S (2008). Making progress in schizophrenia research. Schizophrenia Bulletin 34, 591–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinrichs, RW, Ammari, N, McDermid Vaz, S, Miles, AA (2008). Are schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder neuropsychologically distinguishable? Schizophrenia Research 99, 149–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinrichs, RW, Zakzanis, KK (1998). Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology 12, 426–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, JC, van Amelsvoort, T, Morris, RG, Owen, MJ, Murphy, DG, Murphy, KC (2002). An investigation of the neuropsychological profile in adults with velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS). Neuropsychologia 40, 471–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, SK, Ragland, JD, Gur, RC, Gur, RE (2001). Neuropsychological differences among empirically derived clinical subtypes of schizophrenia. Neuropsychology 15, 492–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoff, AL, Svetina, C, Shields, G, Stewart, J, DeLisi, LE (2005). Ten year longitudinal study of neuropsychological functioning subsequent to a first episode of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 78, 27–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, MK, Erickson, K, Luckenbaugh, DA, Drevets, WC, Bain, EE, Cannon, DM, Snow, J, Sahakian, BJ, Manji, HK, Zarate, Jr. CA (2008). A comparison of cognitive functioning in medicated and unmedicated subjects with bipolar depression. Bipolar Disorders 10, 806–815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holt, DJ, Titone, D, Long, LS, Goff, DC, Cather, C, Rauch, SL, Judge, A, Kuperberg, GR (2006). The misattribution of salience in delusional patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 83, 247–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jahshan, C, Heaton, RK, Golshan, S, Cadenhead, KS (2010). Course of neurocognitive deficits in the prodrome and first episode of schizophrenia. Neuropsychology 24, 109–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jernigan, TL, Trauner, DA, Hesselink, JR, Tallal, PA (1991). Maturation of human cerebrum observed in vivo during adolescence. Brain 114, 2037–2049.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnstone, EC, Ebmeier, KP, Miller, P, Owens, DG, Lawrie, SM (2005). Predicting schizophrenia: findings from the Edinburgh High-Risk Study. British Journal of Psychiatry 186, 18–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P, Rodgers, B, Murray, R, Marmot, M (1994). Child development risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 344, 1398–1402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keefe, RS, Bilder, RM, Davis, SM, Harvey, PD, Palmer, BW, Gold, JM, Meltzer, HY, Green, MF, Capuano, G, Stroup, TS, McEvoy, JP, Swartz, MS, Rosenheck, RA, Perkins, DO, Davis, CE, Hsiao, JK, Lieberman, JA (2007). Neurocognitive effects of antipsychotic medications in patients with chronic schizophrenia in the CATIE Trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 633–647.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keefe, RS, Bilder, RM, Harvey, PD, Davis, SM, Palmer, BW, Gold, JM, Meltzer, HY, Green, MF, Miller, DD, Canive, JM, Adler, LW, Manschreck, TC, Swartz, M, Rosenheck, R, Perkins, DO, Walker, TM, Stroup, TS, McEvoy, JP, Lieberman, JA (2006 a). Baseline neurocognitive deficits in the CATIE schizophrenia trial. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 2033–2046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keefe, RS, Perkins, DO, Gu, H, Zipursky, RB, Christensen, BK, Lieberman, JA (2006 b). A longitudinal study of neurocognitive function in individuals at-risk for psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 88, 26–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keefe, RS, Silva, SG, Perkins, DO, Lieberman, JA (1999). The effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs on neurocognitive impairment in schizophrenia: a review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 25, 201–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Karkowski, LM, Walsh, D (1998). The structure of psychosis: latent class analysis of probands from the Roscommon Family Study. Archives of General Psychiatry 55, 492–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerns, JG, Nuechterlein, KH, Braver, TS, Barch, DM (2008). Executive functioning component mechanisms and schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 64, 26–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kremen, WS, Lyons, MJ, Boake, C, Xian, H, Jacobson, KC, Waterman, B, Eisen, SA, Goldberg, J, Faraone, SV, Tsuang, MT (2006). A discordant twin study of premorbid cognitive ability in schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 28, 208–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuperberg, G, Heckers, S (2000). Schizophrenia and cognitive function. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 10, 205–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurtz, MM, Gerraty, RT (2009). A meta-analytic investigation of neurocognitive deficits in bipolar illness: profile and effects of clinical state. Neuropsychology 23, 551–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kutcher, S, Robertson, HA, Bird, D (1998). Premorbid functioning in adolescent onset bipolar I disorder: a preliminary report from an ongoing study. Journal of Affective Disorders 51, 137–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larsen, L, Hartmann, P, Nyborg, H (2008). The stability of general intelligence from early adulthood to middle-age. Intelligence 36, 29–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leeson, VC, Barnes, TR, Harrison, M, Matheson, E, Harrison, I, Mutsatsa, SH, Ron, MA, Joyce, EM (2010). The relationship between IQ, memory, executive function, and processing speed in recent-onset psychosis: 1-year stability and clinical outcome. Schizophrenia Bulletin 36, 400–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leeson, VC, Barnes, TR, Hutton, SB, Ron, MA, Joyce, EM (2009). IQ as a predictor of functional outcome in schizophrenia: a longitudinal, four-year study of first-episode psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 107, 55–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenzenweger, M, Dworkin, R (1998). Origins and Development of Schizophrenia: Advances in Experimental Psychopathology. American Psychological Association: Washington, DC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewandowski, KE, Shashi, V, Berry, PM, Kwapil, TR (2007). Schizophrenic-like neurocognitive deficits in children and adolescents with 22q11 deletion syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics 144B, 27–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luck, SJ, Gold, JM (2008). The construct of attention in schizophrenia. Biologial Psychiatry 64, 34–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malmberg, A, Lewis, G, David, A, Allebeck, P (1998). Premorbid adjustment and personality in people with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 172, 308–313; discussion 314–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marenco, S, Weinberger, DR (2000). The neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia: following a trail of evidence from cradle to grave. Development and Psychopathology 12, 501–527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinez-Aran, A, Torrent, C, Tabares-Seisdedos, R, Salamero, M, Daban, C, Balanza-Martinez, V, Sanchez-Moreno, J, Manuel Goikolea, J, Benabarre, A, Colom, F, Vieta, E (2008). Neurocognitive impairment in bipolar patients with and without history of psychosis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 69, 233–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClellan, J, Prezbindowski, A, Breiger, D, McCurry, C (2004). Neuropsychological functioning in early onset psychotic disorders. Schizophrenia Research 68, 21–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGrath, J, Chapple, B, Wright, M (2001). Working memory in schizophrenia and mania: correlation with symptoms during the acute and subacute phases. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 103, 181–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McIntosh, AM, Harrison, LK, Forrester, K, Lawrie, SM, Johnstone, EC (2005). Neuropsychological impairments in people with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder and their unaffected relatives. British Journal of Psychiatry 186, 378–385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mesholam-Gately, RI, Giuliano, AJ, Goff, KP, Faraone, SV, Seidman, LJ (2009). Neurocognition in first-episode schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 23, 315–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, SE, Carlson, GA, Wiggs, EA, Martinez, PE, Ronsaville, DS, Klimes-Dougan, B, Gold, PW, Radke-Yarrow, M (2004). A prospective study of the association among impaired executive functioning, childhood attentional problems, and the development of bipolar disorder. Development and Psychopathology 16, 461–476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mojtabai, R, Bromet, EJ, Harvey, PD, Carlson, GA, Craig, TJ, Fennig, S (2000). Neuropsychological differences between first-admission schizophrenia and psychotic affective disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 1453–1460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mur, M, Portella, MJ, Martinez-Aran, A, Pifarre, J, Vieta, E (2008). Long-term stability of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder: a 2-year follow-up study of lithium-treated euthymic bipolar patients. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 69, 712–719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, FC, Sahakian, BJ (2001). Neuropsychology of bipolar disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement 178, s120–s127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, RM, Sham, P, Van Os, J, Zanelli, J, Cannon, M, McDonald, C (2004). A developmental model for similarities and dissimilarities between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research 71, 405–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nehra, R, Chakrabarti, S, Pradhan, BK, Khehra, N (2006). Comparison of cognitive functions between first- and multi-episode bipolar affective disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders 93, 185–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nieuwenstein, MR, Aleman, A, de Haan, EH (2001). Relationship between symptom dimensions and neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of WCST and CPT studies. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Continuous Performance Test. Journal of Psychiatric Research 35, 119–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orzack, MH, Kornetsky, C (1966). Attention dysfunction in chronic schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 14, 323–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orzack, MH, Kornetsky, C (1971). Environmental and familial predictors of attention behavior in chronic schizophrenics. Journal of Psychiatric Research 9, 21–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osler, M, Lawlor, DA, Nordentoft, M (2007). Cognitive function in childhood and early adulthood and hospital admission for schizophrenia and bipolar disorders in Danish men born in 1953. Schizophrenia Research 92, 132–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osuji, IJ, Cullum, CM (2005). Cognition in bipolar disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 28, 427–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pachet, AK, Wisniewski, AM (2003). The effects of lithium on cognition: an updated review. Psychopharmacology 170, 225–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, S, Holzman, PS (1992). Schizophrenics show spatial working memory deficits. Archives of General Psychiatry 49, 975–982.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pukrop, R, Schultze-Lutter, F, Ruhrmann, S, Brockhaus-Dumke, A, Tendolkar, I, Bechdolf, A, Matuschek, E, Klosterkotter, J (2006). Neurocognitive functioning in subjects at risk for a first episode of psychosis compared with first- and multiple-episode schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 28, 1388–1407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quackenbush, D, Kutcher, S, Robertson, HA, Boulos, C, Chaban, P (1996). Premorbid and postmorbid school functioning in bipolar adolescents: description and suggested academic interventions. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 41, 16–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichenberg, A, Caspi, A, Harrington, H, Houts, R, Keefe, RS, Murray, RM, Poulton, R, Moffitt, TE (2010). Static and dynamic cognitive deficits in childhood preceding adult schizophrenia: a 30-year study. American Journal of Psychiatry 167, 160–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichenberg, A, Harvey, PD, Bowie, CR, Mojtabai, R, Rabinowitz, J, Heaton, RK, Bromet, E (2009). Neuropsychological function and dysfunction in schizophrenia and psychotic affective disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin 35, 1022–1029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichenberg, A, Weiser, M, Caspi, A, Knobler, HY, Lubin, G, Harvey, PD, Rabinowitz, J, Davidson, M (2006). Premorbid intellectual functioning and risk of schizophrenia and spectrum disorders. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 28, 193–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichenberg, A, Weiser, M, Rabinowitz, J, Caspi, A, Schmeidler, J, Mark, M, Kaplan, Z, Davidson, M (2002). A population-based cohort study of premorbid intellectual, language, and behavioral functioning in patients with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and nonpsychotic bipolar disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 2027–2035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichenberg, A, Weiser, M, Rapp, MA, Rabinowitz, J, Caspi, A, Schmeidler, J, Knobler, HY, Lubin, G, Nahon, D, Harvey, PD, Davidson, M (2005). Elaboration on premorbid intellectual performance in schizophrenia: premorbid intellectual decline and risk for schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 1297–1304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riley, EM, McGovern, D, Mockler, D, Doku, VC, O'Ceallaigh, S, Fannon, DG, Tennakoon, L, Santamaria, M, Soni, W, Morris, RG, Sharma, T (2000). Neuropsychological functioning in first-episode psychosis – evidence of specific deficits. Schizophrenia Research 43, 47–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, LJ, Ferrier, IN (2006). Evolution of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder: a systematic review of cross-sectional evidence. Bipolar Disorders 8, 103–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, LJ, Thompson, JM, Gallagher, P, Goswami, U, Young, AH, Ferrier, IN, Moore, PB (2006). A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders 93, 105–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosmark, B, Osby, U, Engelbrektson, K, Nyman, H (1999). Stability of performance on neuropsychological tests in patients with schizophrenia. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 249, 299–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossi, A, Arduini, L, Daneluzzo, E, Bustini, M, Prosperini, P, Stratta, P (2000). Cognitive function in euthymic bipolar patients, stabilized schizophrenic patients, and healthy controls. Journal of Psychiatric Research 34, 333–339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubia, K, Overmeyer, S, Taylor, E, Brammer, M, Williams, SC, Simmons, A, Andrew, C, Bullmore, ET (2000). Functional frontalisation with age: mapping neurodevelopmental trajectories with fMRI. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24, 13–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubinsztein, JS, Michael, A, Paykel, ES, Sahakian, BJ (2000). Cognitive impairment in remission in bipolar affective disorder. Psychological Medicine 30, 1025–1036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanchez-Morla, EM, Barabash, A, Martinez-Vizcaino, V, Tabares-Seisdedos, R, Balanza-Martinez, V, Cabranes-Diaz, JA, Baca-Baldomero, E, Gomez, JL (2009). Comparative study of neurocognitive function in euthymic bipolar patients and stabilized schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Research 169, 220–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saykin, AJ, Gur, RC, Gur, RE, Mozley, PD, Mozley, LH, Resnick, SM, Kester, DB, Stafiniak, P (1991). Neuropsychological function in schizophrenia. Selective impairment in memory and learning. Archives of General Psychiatry 48, 618–624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaie, KW (1980). Intelligence change in adulthood [in German]. Zeitschrift für Gerontologie 15, 373–384.Google ScholarPubMed
Schaie, KW (1994). The course of adult intellectual development. The American Psychologist 49, 304–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schretlen, DJ, Cascella, NG, Meyer, SM, Kingery, LR, Testa, SM, Munro, CA, Pulver, AE, Rivkin, P, Rao, VA, Diaz-Asper, CM, Dickerson, FB, Yolken, RH, Pearlson, GD (2007). Neuropsychological functioning in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 62, 179–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultze-Lutter, F, Ruhrmann, S, Picker, H, von Reventlow, HG, Daumann, B, Brockhaus-Dumke, A, Klosterkkotter, J, Pukrop, R (2007). Relationship between subjective and objective cognitive function in the early and late prodrome. British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement 51, s43–s51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seidman, LJ, Buka, SL, Goldstein, JM, Tsuang, MT (2006 a). Intellectual decline in schizophrenia: evidence from a prospective birth cohort 28 year follow-up study. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 28, 225–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seidman, LJ, Giuliano, AJ, Smith, CW, Stone, WS, Glatt, SJ, Meyer, E, Faraone, SV, Tsuang, MT, Cornblatt, B (2006 b). Neuropsychological functioning in adolescents and young adults at genetic risk for schizophrenia and affective psychoses: results from the Harvard and Hillside Adolescent High Risk Studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 507–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seidman, LJ, Kremen, WS, Koren, D, Faraone, SV, Goldstein, JM, Tsuang, MT (2002). A comparative profile analysis of neuropsychological functioning in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar psychoses. Schizophrenia Research 53, 31–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seidman, LJ, Lanca, M, Kremen, WS, Faraone, SV, Tsuang, MT (2003). Organizational and visual memory deficits in schizophrenia and bipolar psychoses using the Rey-Osterrieth complex figure: effects of duration of illness. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 25, 949–964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selva, G, Salazar, J, Balanza-Martinez, V, Martinez-Aran, A, Rubio, C, Daban, C, Sanchez-Moreno, J, Vieta, E, Tabares-Seisdedos, R (2007). Bipolar I patients with and without a history of psychotic symptoms: do they differ in their cognitive functioning? Journal of Psychiatric Research 41, 265–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, AE, Cattapan-Ludewig, K, Zmilacher, S, Arbach, D, Gruber, K, Dvorsky, DN, Roth, B, Isler, E, Zimmer, A, Umbricht, D (2007). Cognitive functioning in the schizophrenia prodrome. Schizophrenia Bulletin 33, 761–771.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simonsen, C, Sundet, K, Vaskinn, A, Birkenaes, AB, Engh, JA, Faerden, A, Jonsdottir, H, Ringen, PA, Opjordsmoen, S, Melle, I, Friis, S, Andreassen, OA (2009). Neurocognitive dysfunction in bipolar and schizophrenia spectrum disorders depends on history of psychosis rather than diagnostic group. Schizophrenia Bulletin. Published online: 14 May 2009, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp034.Google ScholarPubMed
Smith, MJ, Barch, DM, Csernansky, JG (2009). Bridging the gap between schizophrenia and psychotic mood disorders: relating neurocognitive deficits to psychopathology. Schizophrenia Research 107, 69–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sowell, ER, Thompson, PM, Tessner, KD, Toga, AW (2001). Mapping continued brain growth and gray matter density reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: inverse relationships during postadolescent brain maturation. Journal of Neuroscience 21, 8819–8829.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stip, E, Dufresne, J, Lussier, I, Yatham, L (2000). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of lithium on cognition in healthy subjects: mild and selective effects on learning. Journal of Affective Disorders 60, 147–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stip, E, Sepehry, AA, Prouteau, A, Briand, C, Nicole, L, Lalonde, P, Lesage, A (2005). Cognitive discernible factors between schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Brain and Cognition 59, 292–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sweeney, JA, Kmiec, JA, Kupfer, DJ (2000). Neuropsychologic impairments in bipolar and unipolar mood disorders on the CANTAB neurocognitive battery. Biological Psychiatry 48, 674–684.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tabares-Seisdedos, R, Balanza-Martinez, V, Salazar-Fraile, J, Selva-Vera, G, Leal-Cercos, C, Gomez-Beneyto, M (2003). Specific executive/attentional deficits in patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder who have a positive family history of psychosis. Journal of Psychiatric Research 37, 479–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tam, WC, Liu, Z (2004). Comparison of neurocognition between drug-free patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 192, 464–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tiihonen, J, Haukka, J, Henriksson, M, Cannon, M, Kieseppa, T, Laaksonen, I, Sinivuo, J, Lonnqvist, J (2005). Premorbid intellectual functioning in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: results from a cohort study of male conscripts. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 1904–1910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torrey, EF (1999). Epidemiological comparison of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research 39, 101–106; discussion 159–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toulopoulou, T, Quraishi, S, McDonald, C, Murray, RM (2006). The Maudsley Family Study: premorbid and current general intellectual function levels in familial bipolar I disorder and schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 28, 243–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsuang, MT, Winokur, G, Crowe, RR (1980). Morbidity risks of schizophrenia and affective disorders among first degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia, mania, depression and surgical conditions. British Journal of Psychiatry 137, 497–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uzelac, S, Jaeger, J, Berns, S, Gonzales, C (2006). Premorbid adjustment in bipolar disorder: comparison with schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 194, 654–658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valles, V, Van Os, J, Guillamat, R, Gutierrez, B, Campillo, M, Gento, P, Fananas, L (2000). Increased morbid risk for schizophrenia in families of in-patients with bipolar illness. Schizophrenia Research 42, 83–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Amelsvoort, T, Henry, J, Morris, R, Owen, M, Linszen, D, Murphy, K, Murphy, D (2004). Cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia in velo-cardio-facial syndrome. Schizophrenia Research 70, 223–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voglmaier, MM, Seidman, LJ, Salisbury, D, McCarley, RW (1997). Neuropsychological dysfunction in schizotypal personality disorder: a profile analysis. Biological Psychiatry 41, 530–540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, X, Yao, S, Kirkpatrick, B, Shi, C, Yi, J (2008). Psychopathology and neuropsychological impairments in deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia of Chinese origin. Psychiatry Research 158, 195–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weickert, TW, Goldberg, TE, Gold, JM, Bigelow, LB, Egan, MF, Weinberger, DR (2000). Cognitive impairments in patients with schizophrenia displaying preserved and compromised intellect. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 907–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinberger, DR (1987). Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 660–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wohlberg, GW, Kornetsky, C (1973). Sustained attention in remitted schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry 28, 533–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodberry, KA, Giuliano, AJ, Seidman, LJ (2008). Premorbid IQ in schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review. American Journal of Psychiatry 165, 579–587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodward, ND, Purdon, SE, Meltzer, HY, Zald, DH (2005). A meta-analysis of neuropsychological change to clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in schizophrenia. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 8, 457–472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zalewski, C, Johnson-Selfridge, MT, Ohriner, S, Zarrella, K, Seltzer, JC (1998). A review of neuropsychological differences between paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin 24, 127–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zubieta, JK, Huguelet, P, O'Neil, RL, Giordani, BJ (2001). Cognitive function in euthymic bipolar I disorder. Psychiatry Research 102, 9–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed