Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T04:50:46.255Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Long-chain n−3 PUFA: plant v. marine sources

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 March 2007

Christine M. Williams  and
Graham Burdge
Christine M. Williams*
Affiliation:
Hugh Sinclair Unit Human Nutrition, School of Food Biosciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AP, UK
Graham Burdge
Affiliation:
Institute of Human Nutrition, Developmental Origins of Health and Disease Division, University of Southampton SO16 7PX, UK
*
*Corresponding author: Professor C. M. Williams, fax +44 1189 318703, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Increasing recognition of the importance of the long-chain n−3 PUFA, EPA and DHA, to cardiovascular health, and in the case of DHA to normal neurological development in the fetus and the newborn, has focused greater attention on the dietary supply of these fatty acids. The reason for low intakes of EPA and DHA in most developed countries (0·1–0·5 g/d) is the low consumption of oily fish, the richest dietary source of these fatty acids. An important question is whether dietary intake of the precursor n−3 fatty acid, α-linolenic acid (αLNA), can provide sufficient amounts of tissue EPA and DHA by conversion through the n−3 PUFA elongation–desaturation pathway. αLNA is present in marked amounts in plant sources, including green leafy vegetables and commonly-consumed oils such as rape-seed and soyabean oils, so that increased intake of this fatty acid would be easier to achieve than via increased fish consumption. However, αLNA-feeding studies and stable-isotope studies using αLNA, which have addressed the question of bioconversion of αLNA to EPA and DHA, have concluded that in adult men conversion to EPA is limited (approximately 8%) and conversion to DHA is extremely low (<0·1%). In women fractional conversion to DHA appears to be greater (9%), which may partly be a result of a lower rate of utilisation of αLNA for β-oxidation in women. However, up-regulation of the conversion of EPA to DHA has also been suggested, as a result of the actions of oestrogen on Δ6-desaturase, and may be of particular importance in maintaining adequate provision of DHA in pregnancy. The effect of oestrogen on DHA concentration in pregnant and lactating women awaits confirmation.

Keywords

Marine n-3 PUFAPlant n-3 PUFACVDn-3 PUFA in pregnancy
Type
Symposium on ‘Plant foods and public health’
Information
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society , Volume 65 , Issue 1 , February 2006 , pp. 42 - 50
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 2006

References

Albert, CM, Campos, H, Stampfer, MJ, Ridker, PM, Manson, JE, Willett, WC & Ma, J (2002) Blood levels of long-chain n-3 fatty acids and risk of sudden death. New England Journal of Medicine 346 1113–1118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burdge, GC & Calder, PC (2005) α-Linolenic acid metabolism in adult humans: the effects of gender and age on conversion to longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 107 426–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burdge, GC, Finnegan, YE, Minihane, AM, Williams, CM, Wootton, SA (2003) Effect of altered dietary n -3 fatty aid intake upon plasma lipid fatty acid composition, conversion of [13 C]α-linolenic acid to longer-chain fatty acids and partitioning towards β-oxidation in older men. British Journal of Nutrition 90 311–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burdge, GC, Jones, AE, Wootton, SA (2002) Eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal products of α-linolenic acid metabolism in young men. British Journal of Nutrition 88 355–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burdge, GC & Wootton, SA (2002) Conversion of α-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. British Journal of Nutrition 88 411–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burr, ML, Ashfield-Watt, PA, Dunstan, FD, Fehily, AM, Breay, P, Ashton, T, Zotos, PC, Haboubi, NA & Elwood, PC (2003) Lack of benefit of dietary advice to men with angina: results of a controlled trial. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57 193–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burr, ML, Fehily, AM, Gilbert, JF, Rogers, S, Holliday, RM, Sweetman, PM, Elwood, PC, Deadman, NM (1989) Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: direct and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet ii 757–761.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calder, PC (2004) n-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: evidence explained and mechanisms explored. Clinical Science (London) 107 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carnielli, VP, Wattimena, DJ, Luijendijk, IH, Boerlage, A, Degenhart, HJ, Sauer, PJ (1996) The very-low-birth-weight premature infant is capable of synthesizing arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid from linolenic and linolenic acid. Pediatric Research 40 169–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clandinin, MT, Chappell, JE, Hein, T, Swyer, PR, Chance, GW (1981) Fatty acid accretion in fetal and neonatal liver: implications for fatty acid requirements. Early Human Development 5 7–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clandinin, MT, Chappell, JE, Leong, S, Heim, T, Swyer, PR, Chance, GW (1980) Intrauterine fatty acid accretion rates in human brain: implications for fatty acid requirements. Early Human Development 4 121–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunnane, SC, Hamadeh, MJ, Liede, AC, Thompson, LU, Wolever, TM & Jenkins, DJ (1995) Nutritional attributes of traditional flaxseed in healthy young adults. American Journal of Nutrition 61 62–68.Google ScholarPubMed
de Gomez Dumm, IN, Brenner, RR (1975) Oxidative desaturation of alpha-linoleic, linoleic, and stearic acids by human liver microsomes. Lipids 10 315–317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emken, EA (2001) Stable isotope approaches, applications and issues related to polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism studies. Lipids 36 965–973.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emken, EA, Adlof, RO, Duval, SM & Nelson, GJ (1999) Effect of dietary docosahexaenoic acid on desaturation and uptake in vivo of isotope-labeled oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids by male subjects. Lipids 34 785–798.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emken, EA, Adlof, RO, Gulley, RM (1994) Dietary linoleic acid influences desaturation and acylation of deuterium-labeled linoleic and linolenic acids in young adult males. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1213 277–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finnegan, YE, Minihane, AM, Leigh-Firbank, EC, Kew, S, Meijer, GW, Muggli, R, Calder, PC, Williams, CM (2003) Plant- and marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have differential effects on fasting and postprandial blood lipid concentrations and on the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects. American Journal of Nutrition 77 783–795.Google ScholarPubMed
Francois, CA, Connor, SL, Bolewicz, LC & Connor, WE (2003) Supplementing lactating women with flaxseed oil does not increase docosahexaenoic acid in their milk. American Journal of Nutrition 77 226–233.Google Scholar
Giltay, EJ, Gooren, LJ, Toorians, AW, Katan, MB, Zock, PL (2004) Docosahexaenoic acid concentrations are higher in women than in men because of estrogenic effects. American Journal of Nutrition 80 1167–1174.Google ScholarPubMed
GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators (1999) Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvienza nell'Infarto miocardico. Lancet 354 447–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goyens, PL, Spilker, ME, Zock, PL, Katan, MB, Mensink, RP (2005) Compartmental modeling to quantify alpha-linolenic acid conversion after longer term intake of multiple tracer boluses. Journal of Lipid Research 46 1474–1483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregersen, MI & Rawson, RA (1959) Blood volume. Physiological Reviews 39 307–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haggarty, P (2004) Effect of placental function on fatty acid requirements during pregnancy. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58 1559–1570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helland, IB, Saugstad, DO, Smith, L, Saarem, K, Solvoll, K, Ganes, T & Drevon, CA (2001) Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women. Pediatrics 108 E82CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henderson, L, Gregory, J, Irving, K & Swan, G (2004) National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Adults Aged 19 to 64 Years. vol. 2: Energy, Protein, Fat and Carbohydrate Intake. London: The Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Hussein, N, Ah-Sing, E, Wilkinson, P, Leach, C, Griffin, BA, Millward, DJ (2005) Relative rates of long chain conversion of 13C linoleic and α-linolenic acid in response to marked changes in their dietary intake in male adults. Journal of Lipid Research 46 269–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, MJ, Ursin, VM, Cleland, LG (2003) Metabolism of stearidonic acid in human subjects: comparison with the metabolism of other n-3 fatty acids. American Journal of Nutrition 77 1140–1145.Google Scholar
Jeffrey, BG, Weisinger, HS, Neuringer, M & Mitchell, DC (2001) The role of docosahexaenoic acid in retinal function. Lipids 36 859–871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen, CL, Maude, M, Anderson, RE, Heird, WC (2000) Effect of docoshexaenoic acid supplementation of lactating women on the fatty acid composition of breast milk lipids and maternal and infant plasma phospholipids. American Journal of Nutrition 71 292S–299S.Google Scholar
Jorgensen, MH, Hernell, O, Hughes, E & Michaelsen, KF (2001) Is there a relation between docosahexaenoic acid concentration in mother's milk and visual development in term infants. Journal of Pediatric Gasteroenterology and Nutrition 32 293–296.Google Scholar
Li, D, Sinclair, A, Wilson, A, Nakkote, S, Kelly, F, Abedin, L, Mann, N & Turner, A (1999) Effect of dietary alpha-linolenic acid on thrombotic risk factors in vegetarian men. American Journal of Nutrition 69 872–882.Google ScholarPubMed
Makrides, M & Gibson, RA (2000) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid requirements during pregnancy and lactation. American Journal of Nutrition 71 307–311.Google ScholarPubMed
Malcolm, CA, McCulloch, DL, Montgomery, C, Shepherd, A & Weaver, LT (2003) Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy and visual evoked potential development in term infants: a double blind, prospective, randomized trial. Archives of Disease in Childhood 88 F383–F390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mantzioris, E, James, MJ, Gibson, RA & Cleland, LG (1994) Dietary substitution with an alpha-linolenic acid-rich vegetable oil increases eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations in tissues. American Journal of Nutrition 59 1304–1309.Google ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, DC, Niu, SL, Litman, BJ (2003) Enhancement of G protein-coupled signaling by DHA phospholipids. Lipids 38 437–443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, SF, Hansen, HS, Secher, NJ, Jenson, B, Sandstrom, B (1995) Gestation length and birth weight in relation to intake of marine n -3 fatty acids. British Journal of Nutrition 73 397–404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, SF & Secher, NJ (2002) Low consumption of seafood in early pregnancy as a risk factor for preterm delivery: prospective cohort study. British Medical Journal 324 447CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, SF, Secher, NJ, Tabor, A, Weber, T, Walker, JJ & Gluud, C (2000) Randomized clinical trials of fish oil supplementation in high risk pregnancies. Fish Oil Trials In Pregnancy (FOTIP) Team. BJOG: an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 107 382–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, SF, Sorensen, JD, Secher, NJ, Hedegaard, M, Henriksen, TB, Hansen, HS & Grant, A (1992) Randomized controlled trial of effect of fish-oil supplementation on pregnancy duration. Lancet 339 1003–1007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ottosson, UB, Lagrelius, A, Rosing, U, von Schoultz, B (1984) Relative fatty acids composition of lecithin during postmenopausal replacement therapy – a comparison between ethinyl estradiol and estradiol valerate. Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation 18 296–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pawlosky, RJ, Hibbeln, JR, Lin, Y, Goodson, S, Riggs, P, Sebring, N, Brown, GL & Salem, N (2003 a) Effects of beef- and fish-based diets on the kinetics of n-3 fatty acid metabolism in human subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77 565–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pawlosky, R, Hibbeln, J, Lin, Y & Salem, N (2003 b) n-3 fatty acid metabolism in women. British Journal of Nutrition 90 993–994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pawlosky, RJ, Hibbeln, JR, Novotny, JA & Salem, N (2001) Physiological compartmental analysis of α-linolenic acid metabolism in adult humans. Journal of Lipid Research 42 1257–1265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poisson, J-P, Dupuy, R-P, Sarda, P, Descomps, B, Narce, M, Rieu, D, Crastes de Paulet, A (1993) Evidence that liver microsomes of human neonates desaturate essential fatty acids. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1167 109–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Postle, AD, Al, MD, Burdge, GC & Hornstra, G (1995) The composition of individual molecular species of plasma phosphatidylcholine in human pregnancy. Early Human Development 43 47–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salem, N, Powlosky, R, Wegher, B & Hibbeln, J (1999) In vivo conversion of linolenic acid to arachidonic acid in human adults. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 60 407–410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salem, N, Wegher, B, Mena, P & Uauy, R (1996) Arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids are biosynthesized from their 18-carbon precursors in human infants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 93 49–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, TA & Younger, KM (1981) The effect of dietary supplements of omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of platelets and plasma choline phosphoglycerides. British Journal of Nutrition 45 613–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (2004) Advice on Fish Consumption: Benefits and Risks. SACN/COT Report. London: The Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Singh, RB, Niaz, MA, Harma, JP, Kumar, R, Rastogi, V & Moshiri, M (1997) Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fish oil and mustard oil in patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction: the Indian experiment of infarct survival – 4. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 11 485–491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siscovick, DS, Raghunathan, TE, King, I, Weinmann, S, Wicklund, KG, Albright, J et al. (1995) Dietary intake and cell membrane levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest. Journal of American Medical Association 274 1363–1367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smuts, CM, Huang, M, Mundy, D, Plasse, T, Major, S & Carlson, SE (2003) A randomized trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during the third trimester of pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology 101 469–479.Google ScholarPubMed
Sprecher, H (2002) The roles of anabolic and catabolic reactions in the synthesis and recycling of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 67 79–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vermunt, SHF, Mensink, RP, Simonis, AMG & Hornstra, G (2000) Effects of dietary α-linolenic acid on the conversion and oxidation of [13C]-α-linolenic acid. Lipids 35 137–142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, FA, Miles, EA, Calder, PC (2003) Comparison of the effects of linseed oil and different doses of fish oil on mononuclear cell function in healthy human subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 89 679–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, C, Birch, EE, Emmett, PM & Northstone, K (2001) Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood Study Team. Stereoacuity at age 3·5y in children born full-term is associated with prenatal and postnatal dietary factors: a report from a population-based cohort study. American Journal of Nutrition 73 316–322.Google Scholar