Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T08:48:06.221Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Anomalous climatic conditions during winter 2010–2011 and vulnerability of the traditional Inuit food system in Iqaluit, Nunavut

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 April 2014

Sara Statham ,
James Ford ,
Lea Berrang-Ford ,
Marie-Pierre Lardeau ,
William Gough  and
Rick Siewierski
Sara Statham
Affiliation:
McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B9, Canada ([email protected])
James Ford
Affiliation:
McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B9, Canada ([email protected])
Lea Berrang-Ford
Affiliation:
McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B9, Canada ([email protected])
Marie-Pierre Lardeau
Affiliation:
McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B9, Canada ([email protected])
William Gough
Affiliation:
University of Toronto, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, Ontario M1C 1A4, Canada
Rick Siewierski
Affiliation:
University of Toronto, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, Ontario M1C 1A4, Canada
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study examines how climatic extremes during winter 2010–2011 affected the traditional food system in Iqaluit, Nunavut. This winter was anomalous throughout the Canadian Arctic, and manifested itself locally by warmer temperatures and decreased ice coverage. Drawing upon in-depth interviews with hunters (n = 25), a fixed question survey with public housing residents (n = 100), as well as analysis of remotely sensed sea-ice charts and temperature data from the Iqaluit weather station, this work identifies and characterises the extreme climatic conditions experienced, their subsequent effects on Iqaluit's traditional food system, and coping strategies used for dealing with food-related stresses. The results show increased environmental stress on the traditional food system compared to previous years. Freeze up occurred 59 days later than the average for the 1982–2010 period, while mean annual temperatures were 4.9ºC higher than the climatological mean, which negatively impacted hunters’ harvests and residents’ food supplies. Coping strategies alleviated some stresses, but adaptability was limited for financially insecure households reliant on income support. The study shows that when challenging socioeconomic conditions, such as those associated with public housing, are coupled with significant environmental stress, such as experienced during that winter, the vulnerability of the traditional food system is exacerbated. We suggest that winter 2010–2011 can be used as an analogue for exploring future food system vulnerabilities, with climate models projecting similar conditions in the coming decades.

Type
Research Article
Information
Polar Record , Volume 51 , Issue 3 , May 2015 , pp. 301 - 317
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ACIA (Arctic Climate Impact Assessment). 2005. Arctic Climate Impacts Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Adger, W.N. 2006. Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change 16 (3): 268–281.Google Scholar
Adger, W.N. and Barnett, J.. 2009. Four reasons for concern about adaptation to climate change. Environment and Planning A 41 (12): 2800–2805.Google Scholar
Adger, W.N., Eakin, H. and Winkels, A.. 2009. Nested and teleconnected vulnerabilities to environmental change. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7: 150–157.Google Scholar
Andrachuk, A. and Pearce, T.. 2010. Vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in two communities in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region. In: Hovelsrud, G. and Smit, B. (editors) CAVIAR: Community adaptation and vulnerability in Arctic regions. Dordrecht: Springer: 63–82.Google Scholar
Andrachuk, M. and Smit, B.. 2012. Community–based vulnerability assessment of Tuktoyaktuk, NWT, Canada to environmental and socio–economic changes. Regional Environmental Change 12 (4): 867–885.Google Scholar
Beaumier, M. and Ford, J.. 2010. Food insecurity among Inuit females exacerbated by socio–economic stresses and climate change. Canadian Journal of Public Health 101 (3): 196–201.Google Scholar
Belliveau, S., Smit, B. and Bradshaw, B.. 2006. Multiple exposures and dynamic vulnerability: evidence from the grape and wine industry in the Okanagan Valley, Canada. Global Environmental Change 16 (4): 364–378.Google Scholar
Berkes, F. and Jolly, D.. 2001. Adapting to climate change: social–ecological resilience in a Canadian western Arctic community. Conservation Ecology 5 (2): 18.Google Scholar
Berrang–Ford, L., Ford, J.D. and Patterson, J.. 2011. Are we adapting to climate change? Global Environmental Change 21: 25–33.Google Scholar
Bohle, H.C., Downing, T.E. and Watts, M.J.. 1994. Climate change and social vulnerability. Global Environmental Change 4: 37–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, N., Grist, N. and Brown, K.. 2009. Development futures in the context of climate change: challenging the present and learning from the past. Development Policy Review 27 (6): 741–765.Google Scholar
Cameron, E.S. 2012. Securing indigenous politics: a critique of the vulnerability and adaptation approach to the human dimensions of climate change in the Canadian Arctic. Global Environmental Change 22 (1):103–114.Google Scholar
Chan, H.M. 2006. Food safety and food security in the Canadian Arctic. Meridian Fall/Winter: 1–4.Google Scholar
Coumou, D. and Rahmstorf, S.. 2012. A decade of weather extremes. Nature Climate Change 2: 491–496.Google Scholar
Cunsolo Willox, A, Harper, S., Ford, J.D., Landman, K., Houle, K., Edge, V.L. and Rigolet Inuit Community Government. 2012. ‘From this place and of this place’: climate change, sense of place, and health in Nunatsiavut, Canada. Social Science & Medicine 75 (3): 538–547.Google Scholar
Damas, D. 2002. Arctic migrants/Arctic villagers. Montreal: McGill–Queens University Press.Google Scholar
Davidson–Hunt, I. and Berkes, F.. 2003. Learning as you journey: Anishinaabe perception of social–ecological environments and adaptive learning. Ecology and Society 8 (1): 5. URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol8/iss1/art5/Google Scholar
Dumas, J.A., Flato, G.M. and Brown, R.D.. 2006. Future projections of landfast ice thickness and duration in the Canadian Arctic. Journal of Climate 19: 5175–5189.Google Scholar
Eakin, H. and Luers, A.L.. 2006. Assessing the vulnerability of social–environmental systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 31: 365–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egeland, G.M. and Johnson–Down, L.. 2009. Food security and dietary adequacy: Canadian Inuit preschool children. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 55: 174–174.Google Scholar
Egeland, G.M., Faraj, N. and Osborne, G.. 2010a. Cultural, socioeconomic, and health indicators among Inuit preschoolers: Nunavut Inuit child health survey, 2007–2008. Rural and Remote Health 10 (2): 1365.Google Scholar
Egeland, G.M., Pacey, A., Cao, Z. and Sobol, I.. 2010b. Food insecurity among Inuit preschoolers: Nunavut Inuit child health survey, 2007–2008. Canadian Medical Association Journal 182: 243–248.Google Scholar
Erber, E., Beck, L., Hopping, B., Sheehy, T., De Roose, E. and Sharma, S.. 2010. Food patterns and socioeconomic indicators of food consumption amongst Inuvialuit in the Canadian Arctic. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 23: 59–66.Google Scholar
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1996. Rome Declaration on world food security and world food summit plan of action. World Rome: FAO (Food summit 13–17 November 1996).Google Scholar
Fazey, I., Fazey, J.A., Fischer, J., Sherren, K., Warren, J., Noss, R.F. and Dovers, S.R.. 2007. Adaptive capacity and learning to learn as leverage for social–ecological resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5 (7): 375–380.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D. 2009. Vulnerability of Inuit food systems to food insecurity as a consequence of climate change: a case study from Igloolik, Nunavut. Regional Environmental Change 9 (2): 83–100.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D. and Beaumier, M.. 2011. Feeding the family during times of stress: experience and determinants of food insecurity in an Inuit community. The Geographical Journal 177 (1): 44–61.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D. and Berrang–Ford, L.. 2009. Food security in Igloolik, Nunavut: an exploratory study. Polar Record 45 (3): 225–236.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D., Bolton, K.C., Shirley, J., Pearce, T., Tremblay, M. and Westlake, M.. 2012b. Research on the human dimensions of climate change in Nunavut, Nunavik, and Nunatsiavut: a literature review and gap analysis. Arctic 65 (3): 289–304.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D., Gough, W.A., Laidler, G.J., MacDonald, J., Irngaut, C. and Qrunnut, K.. 2009. Sea ice, climate change, and community vulnerability in northern Foxe Basin, Canada. Climate Research 38 (2): 137–154.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D., Keskitalo, E.C.H., Smith, T., Pearce, T., Berrang–Ford, L., Duerden, F. and Smit, B.. 2010c. Case study and analogue methodologies in climate change vulnerability research. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 1 (3): 374–392.Google Scholar
Ford, J., McDowell, G., Shirley, J., Pitre, M., Siewierski, R., Gough, W., Duerden, F., Pearce, T., Adams, P. and Statham, S.. 2013. The dynamic multiscale nature of climate change vulnerability: an Inuit harvesting example. Annals of the Association on American Geographers 103 (5): 1193–1211.Google Scholar
Ford, J., Lardeau, M–P. and Vanderbilt, W.. 2012a. The characteristics and experience of community food program users in arctic Canada: a case study from Iqaluit, Nunavut. BMC Public Health 12: 464.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D. and Pearce, T.. 2012. Climate change vulnerability and adaptation research focusing on the Inuit subsistence sector in Canada: directions for future research. Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 56 (2): 275–287.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D., Pearce, T., Durden, F., Furgal, C. and Smit, B.. 2010a. Climate change policy responses for Canada's Inuit population: the importance of and opportunities for adaptation. Global Environmental Change 20 (1): 177–191.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D., Pearce, T., Duerden, F., Furgal, C., and Smit, B.. 2010d. Climate change policy responses for Canada's Inuit population: the importance of and opportunities for adaptation. Global Environmental Change-Human and Policy Dimensions 20.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D. and Smit, B.. 2004. A framework for assessing the vulnerability of communities in the Canadian arctic to risks associated with climate change. Arctic 57 (4): 389–400.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D., Smit, B. and Wandel, J.. 2006. Vulnerability to climate change in the Arctic: a case study from Arctic Bay, Canada. Global Environmental Change 16 (2): 145–160.Google Scholar
Ford, J.D., Smit, B., Wandel, J. and MacDonald, J.. 2006. Vulnerability to climate change in Igloolik, Nunavut: what we can learn from the past and present. Polar Record 42 (2): 127–138.Google Scholar
Furgal, C. 2008. Health Impacts of climate change in Canada's north. In: Seguin, J. (editor). Human health in a changing climate: an assessment of vulnerabilities and adaptive capacities. Ottawa: Health Canada: 303–366.Google Scholar
Furgal, C. and Prowse, T.. 2008. Northern Canada. In: Lemmen, D., Warren, F., Bush, E., and Lacroix, J. (editors). From impacts to adaptation: Canada in a changing climate 2007. Ottawa: Natural Resources Canada.Google Scholar
Fussel, H.M. and Klein, R.T.J.. 2006. Climate change vulnerability assessments: an evolution of conceptual thinking. Global Environmental Change 75 (3): 301–329.Google Scholar
Gagnon, A.S. and Gough, W.A.. 2005. Climate change scenarios for the Hudson Bay region: an intermodel comparison. Climatic Change 69 (2–3): 269–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gagnon, A.S. 2005. Trends in the dates of ice freeze–up and breakup over Hudson Bay, Canada. Arctic 58 (4): 370–382.Google Scholar
Gearheard, S., Pocernich, M., Stewart, R., Sanguya, J. and Huntington, H.P.. 2010. Linking Inuit knowledge and meteorological station observations to understand changing wind patterns at Clyde River, Nunavut. Climatic Change 100 (2): 267–294.Google Scholar
Gearheard, S., Matumeak, W., Angutikjuaq, I., Maslanik, J., Huntington, H.P., Leavitt, J., Kagak, D.M., Tigullaraq, G. and Barry, R.G.. 2006. ‘It's not that simple’: a collaborative comparison of sea ice environments, their uses, observed changes, and adaptations in Barrow, Alaska, USA, and Clyde River, Nunavut, Canada. Ambio 35 (4): 203–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glantz, M. 1990. Does history have a future: forecasting climate change effects on fisheries by analogy. Fisheries 15 (6): 39–44.Google Scholar
Glantz, M. 1991. The use of analogies in forecasting ecological and societal responses to global warming. Environment 33 (5): 27–33.Google Scholar
Glantz, M. 1992. Climate variability, climate change and fisheries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Glantz, M. 1996a. Currents of change: El Niño's impact on climate and society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Glantz, M. 1996b. Forecasting by analogy: local responses to global climate change. in Smith, J.B. (editor). Adapting to climate change. New York: Springer: 407–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gough, W.A, Cornwell, A.R. and Tsuji, L.J.S.. 2004. Trends in seasonal sea ice duration in southwestern Hudson Bay. Arctic 57 (3): 299–305.Google Scholar
Government of Nunavut. 2010. An analysis of the housing needs in Nunavut: Nunavut housing needs survey 2009/2010. Iqaluit: Income Statistics Division, Statistics Canada for the Nunavut Housing Corporation.Google Scholar
Gregory, P.J., Ingram, J.S.I. and Brklacich, M.J.. 2005. Climate change and food security. Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society B 360: 2139–2148.Google Scholar
Gunn, A., Miller, F.L., Barry, S.J. and Buchan, A.. 2006. A near–total decline in caribou on Prince of Wales, Somerset, and Russell Islands, Canadian Arctic. Arctic 59 (1): 1–13.Google Scholar
Guyot, M., Dickson, C., Paci, C., Furgal, C. and Chan, H.. 2006. Local observations of climate change and impacts of traditional food security in two northern aboriginal communities. International Journal of Circumpolar Health 65 (5): 403–415.Google Scholar
Haalboom, B. and Natcher, D.C.. 2012. The power and peril of ‘vulnerability’: approaching community labels with caution in climate change research. Arctic 65 (3): 319–327.Google Scholar
Hamilton, L.C., Brown, B.C. and Rasmussen, R.O.. 2003. West Greenland's cod–to–shrimp transition: local dimensions of climatic change. Arctic 56 (3): 271–282.Google Scholar
Hamilton, L., Lyster, P.A. and Otterstad, O.. 2000. Social change, ecology and climate in 20th century Greenland. Climatic Change 47 (1–2): 193–211.Google Scholar
Harper, S.L., Edge, V.L., Cunsolo Willox, A. and Rigolet Inuit Community Government. 2012. Changing climate, changing health, changing stories’ profile: using an ecohealth approach to explore impacts of climate change on Inuit health. Ecohealth 9 (1): 89–101.Google Scholar
Holland, M.M., Serreze, M.C. and Stroeve, J.. 2010. The sea ice mass budget of the Arctic and its future change as simulated by coupled climate models. Climate Dynamics 34 (2–3): 185–200.Google Scholar
Hudson, E., Aihoshi, D., Gaines, T., Simard, G. and Mullock, J.. 2001. Weather of Nunavut and the Arctic. Ottawa: NAV Canada: 246.Google Scholar
Huet, C., Rosol, R. and Egeland, G.M.. 2012. The prevalence of food insecurity Is high and the diet quality poor in Inuit communities. Journal of Nutrition 142 (3): 541–547.Google Scholar
Huntington, H., Hamilton, L., Nicholson, C., Brunner, R., Lynch, A., Ogilvie, A.E.J. and Voinov, A.. 2007. Toward understanding the human dimensions of the rapidly changing arctic system: insights and approaches from five HARC projects. Regional Environmental Change 7 (4): 173–186.Google Scholar
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007a. Climate change 2007: synthesis report. In: Pachauri, R.K. and Reisinger, A. (editors). Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva: IPCC.Google Scholar
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007b. Climate change 2007: the physical science sasis. In: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M. and Miller, H.L. (editors). Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2013. Summary for policymakers. In: Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.–K., Tignor, M., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V. and Midgley, P.M. (editors). Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Johnson–Down, L. and Egeland, G.M.. 2010. Adequate nutrient intakes are associated with traditional food consumption in Nunavut Inuit children aged 3–5 years. Journal of Nutrition 140 (7): 1311–1316.Google Scholar
Keskitalo, C. 2004. A framework for multi–level stakeholder studies in response to global change. Local Environment 9 (5): 425–435.Google Scholar
Keskitalo, E.C. 2008. Climate change and globalization in the Arctic: an integrated approach to vulnerability assessment. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Kohlbacher, F. 2006. The use of qualitative content analysis in case study research. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research 7 (1).Google Scholar
Kuhnlein, H.V., Erasmus, B. and Spigelski, D.. 2009. Indigenous peoples’ food systems: the many dimensions of culture, diversity and environment for nutrition and health. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Centre for Indigenous Peoples’ Nutrition and Environment.Google Scholar
Kuhnlein, H.V. and Receveur, O.. 1996. Dietary change and traditional food systems of indigenous peoples. In: McCormick, D.B. (editor). Annual Review of Nutrition. Annual Reviews Inc: 417–442.Google Scholar
Laidler, G.J. 2006. Inuit and scientific perspectives on the relationship between sea ice and climate change: the ideal complement? Climatic Change 78:407–444.Google Scholar
Laidler, G.J., Ford, J.D., Gough, W.A., Ikummaq, T., Gagnon, A.S., Kowal, S., Qrunnut, K. and Irngaut, C.. 2009. Travelling and hunting in a changing Arctic: assessing Inuit vulnerability to sea ice change in Igloolik, Nunavut. Climatic Change 94 (3–4): 363–397.Google Scholar
Laidler, G.J. and Elee, P.. 2008. Human geographies of sea ice: freeze/thaw processes around Cape Dorset, Nunavut, Canada. Polar Record 44 (228): 51–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laidler, G.J. and Ikummaq, T.. 2008. Human geographies of sea ice: freeze/thaw processes around Igloolik, Nunavut, Canada. Polar Record 44 (229): 127–153.Google Scholar
Lambden, J., Receveur, O., Marshall, J. and Kuhnlein, H.V.. 2006. Traditional and market food access in Arctic Canada is affected by economic factors. International Journal of Circumpolar Health 65 (4): 331–340.Google Scholar
Lardeau, M–P., Healey, G. and Ford, J.D.. 2011. The use of photovoice to document and characterize the food security of users of community food programs in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Rural and Remote Health 11 (2): 1680.Google Scholar
Leichenko, R. and O'Brien, K.. 2008. Environmental change and globalization: double exposures. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mayring, P. 2002. Einführung in die qualitative Sozialforschung. Eine Anleitung zu qualitativem Denken [Introduction to Qualitative Social Research. A guide towards qualitative thinking]. Weinheim und Basel: Beltz Verlag.Google Scholar
McLeman, R., Mayo, D., Strebeck, E. and Smit, B.. 2008. Drought adaptation in rural eastern Oklahoma in the 1930s: lessons for climate change adaptation research. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 12 (4): 379–400.Google Scholar
McLeman, R. and Hunter, L.M.. 2010. Migration in the context of vulnerability and adaptation to climate change: insights from analogues. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 1 (3): 450–461Google Scholar
Meldrum, S.M. 1975. Frobisher Bay: an area economic survey 1966–1969. Ottawa: Indian Affairs and Northern Development.Google Scholar
Miller, F.L. and Gunn, A.. 2003. Catastrophic die off of Peary caribou on the western Queen Elizabeth Islands, Canadian High Arctic. Arctic 56 (4): 381–390.Google Scholar
Nawri, N. and Stewart, R.. 2006. Climatological features of orographic low level jets over Frobisher Bay. Atmosphere–Ocean 44 (4): 397–413.Google Scholar
Nunavut Roundtable for Poverty Reduction. 2012. Understanding poverty in Nunavut. URL: http://makiliqta.ca/sites/default/files/anti-poverty_content_april18.pdf. (accessed 6 February 2013).Google Scholar
NWMB (Nunavut Wildlife Management Board). 2004. The Nunavut wildlife harvest study. Iqaluit: Nunavut Wildlife Management Board.Google Scholar
O’Brien, K., Eriksen, S., Nygaard, L.P. and Schjolden, A.. 2007. Why different interpretations of vulnerability matter in climate change discourses. Climate Policy 7 (1): 73–88.Google Scholar
Pearce, T., Smit, B., Duerden, F., Ford, J.D., Goose, A. and Kataoyak, F.. 2010b. Inuit vulnerability and adaptive capacity to climate change in Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories, Canada. Polar Record 46 (2): 157–177.Google Scholar
Pearce, T., Smit, B., Duerden, F., Ford, J.D., Goose, A. and Kataoyak, F.. 2010c. Inuit vulnerability and adaptive capacity to climate change in Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories, Canada. Polar Record 46: 157–177.Google Scholar
Pearce, T., Ford, J.D., Duerden, F., Smit, B., Andrachuk, M., Berrang–Ford, L. and Smith, T.. 2011. Advancing adaptation planning for climate change in the Inuvialuit settlement region (ISR): a review and critique. Regional Environmental Change 11 (1): 1–17.Google Scholar
Pearce, T., Notaina, R., Wright, H., Kudlak, A., Ford, J. and Smit, B.. 2010a. Transmission of environmental knowledge and land skills in adaptation planning for climate change in the Arctic. Meridian: Canadian Polar Commission Spring/Summer: 6–11.Google Scholar
Penning–Rowsell, E., Johnson, C. and Tunstall, S.. 2006. ‘Signals’ from pre–crisis discourse: lessons from UK flooding for global environmental policy change? Global Environmental Change 16 (4): 323–339.Google Scholar
Poppel, B., Kruse, J., Duhaime, G. and Abryutina, L.. 2007. SLiCA results. Anchorage: University of Alaska Anchorage, Institute of Social and Economic Research.Google Scholar
Ribot, J. 2011. Vulnerability before adaptation: toward transformative climate action. Global Environmental Change 21: 1160–1162.Google Scholar
Sarlio–Lähteenkorva, S. and Lahelma, E.. 2001. Food insecurity is associated with past and present economic disadvantage and body mass index. The Journal of Nutrition 131 (11): 2880–4.Google Scholar
Sayles, J.S. and Mulrennan, M.E.. 2010. Securing a future: Cree hunters’ resistance and flexibility to environmental changes, Wemindji, James Bay. Ecology and Society 15 (4): 22.Google Scholar
Searles, E. 2008. Inuit identity in the Canadian Arctic. Ethnology: An International Journal of Cultural and Social Anthropology 47 (4): 239–255.Google Scholar
Searles, E. 2010. Placing identity: town, land, and authenticity in Nunavut, Canada. Acta Borealia: A Nordic Journal of Circumpolar Societies 27 (2): 151–166.Google Scholar
Serreze, M.C. 2010. Understanding recent climate change. Conservation Biology 24 (1): 10–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Serreze, M.C. 2011. Climate change: rethinking the sea–ice tipping point. Nature 471 (7336): 47–48.Google Scholar
Smit, B. and Wandel, J.. 2006. Adaptation, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability. Global Environmental Change 16 (3): 282–292.Google Scholar
Smit, B. and Pilifosova, O.. 2001. Adaptation to climate change in the context of sustainable development and equity. In: McCarthy, J., Canziani, O.F., Leary, N.A., Dokken, D.J. and White, K.S. (editors). Climate change 2001: impacts, adaptation, vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Contribution of working group II to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change): 876–912.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. 2011. Gross domestic product by industry, millions of chained (2002) dollars. Ottawa: Government of Canada.Google Scholar
Stirling, I. and Smith, T.G.. 2004. Implications of warm temperatures and an unusual rain event for the survival of ringed seals on the coast of southeastern Baffin Island. Arctic 57 (1): 59–67.Google Scholar
Stroeve, J.C., Maslanik, J., Serreze, M.C., Rigor, I., Meier, W. and Fowler, C.. 2011. Sea ice response to an extreme negative phase of the Arctic oscillation during winter 2009/2010. Geophysical Research Letters 38 (2).Google Scholar
Wakegijig, J., Osborne, G., Statham, S. and Issaluk, M.D.. 2013. Collaborating toward improving food security in Nunavut. International Journal of Circumpolar Health 72: 21201.Google Scholar
Wesche, S.D. and Chan, H.M.. 2010. Adapting to the impacts of climate change on food security among Inuit in the Western Canadian Arctic. EcoHealth 7 (3): 361–373Google Scholar