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The Intellectual Background of Lizardi as Reflected in El Periquillo Sarniento

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 December 2020

Jefferson Rea Spell
Jefferson Rea Spell*
Affiliation:
University of Texas, Austin 12
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Extract

The Promulgation, in 1812, of the Constitution of Cadiz provoked throughout Spain and her domains a bitter controversy between the opponents and the partisans of that liberal and innovative body of legislation. Among the supporters in Mexico City was José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi (1776–1827), who, as soon as the Constitution went into effect there, established a sheet, El Pensador Mexicano (1812–14), with the avowed purpose of defending the new form of government and of praising its liberal provisions, particularly those granting freedom of the press and abolishing the Inquisition. His first article began with an exlamation: “¡Gracias a Dios y la nueva Constitutión que ya nos vamos desimpresionando de algunos errores que nos tenían enterrados nuestros antepasados!” But, in spite of the freedom of the press, the Viceroy ordered his arrest, and some months in jail dampened his enthusiasm; he continued, however, his periodical as well as its successor, the Alacena de Frioleras (1815), with articles of a less controversial nature, until the end of that year. Continually in difficulty with the censors after 1814, when the Constitution was abrogated by Ferdinand VII, he finally limited himself to the writing of fiction until the reestablishment of the Constitution in 1820. During this period he produced four novels, one of which, El Periquillo Sarniento (1816), is his masterpiece. While the characters and setting of this novel are definitely Mexican, with certain autobiographical elements, the mold in which it is cast is that of the Spanish picaresque. Like its prototype in general, the Periquillo is concerned with matters of a purely ethical nature; but this aspect of the novel is less impressive—in contrast, for example, with Alemán's Guzmán de Alfarache or the novels of Francisco Santos—than the wealth of ideas in regard to definite reforms that the author believes would contribute to the general welfare. These ideas, interwoven with incidents in the life of a picaro, did not originate with the author but reflect wide reading in many fields. To point out the sources of these ideas, and thereby fathom the intellectual background of Lizardi, is the object of this article.

Type
Research Article
Information
PMLA , Volume 71 , Issue 3 , June 1956 , pp. 414 - 432
Copyright
Copyright © Modern Language Association of America, 1956

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References

1 Three vols, appeared in that year; a 4th was prohibited by the censors. The 1st complete printing of the work, 3 years after the death of the author, was the ed. of 1830–31, in 5 vols. As subsequent eds. have undergone alterations and deletions by their editors, my refs. to Vols, I–III are to the 1816 ed., and refs. to Vols iv-v are to the 1830–31 ed. Unless otherwise indicated, the imprint of all of Lizardi's works is Mexico.

2 See Obras (Madrid, 1794–99;, ii, 214. His Suenos were imitated by Lizardi in “Los pasos de la Verdad (a imitación de los que el doctor Villarroel hizo entre sueños con el fantasma de D. Francisco Quevedo;,” in Alacena de Frioleras, No. xvin (3 Aug. 1815); El Sueño del Pensador no vaya a salir verdad (1822); Segundo Sueñno del Pensador (1822); Concluye el Sueño del Pensador Mexicano (1822;; and El Sueñno de la anarquia (1823).

3 For the ref. to Fuller, see Menckenio (Mencke), Declamaciones, p. 33. Lizardi drew from Mencke in at least 5 other instances, acknowledging his source only in the 1st and the 5th: (1) Per., I, 59 (scholastic disquisitions); (2) i, 60 (an incident attributed to the Italian poet Ariosto, which Lizardi had read, or remembered, somewhat confusedly); (3) ii, ii (los Anales de Volusio); (4) HI, 57–58 (an episode concerning the Italian poetaster Caruilo Quemo, which Lizardi claims he had read in Paulo Giovio; (5) iv, 57–58 (on law). Cf., respectively, Declamaciones, pp. 131, 126–127, 25, 121–122.

4 Luis Moreri, Grand dictionnaire historique, ou Mélange curieux de l'histoire sacrée et profane (Lyon, 1674), tr. Joseph de Miravel y Casadevante as El gran diccionario hislórico, o Miscélánea de la historia sagrada y profana (Paris, 1753), 8 vols. Lizardi mentions (ii, 48) Moreri's Diccionario as a source for data on Pope Sixtus V, and he probably took from it his account of the funeral customs of the Romans (ii, 4–7) and incidents in the life of Hippocrates (iii, 61–62). For his information about Greek funeral customs (ii, 4–7) he probably used, instead of Moreri, J. J. Barthélemy's Voyage du jeune Anarchasis en Grèce … (1788), trs. of which were advertised early in the Diario de Mexico. See Viaje del joren Anarcharsis … (Madrid, 1813–14), ii, 132–137.

5 Venezia, 1708. Tr. Juan Sempere y Guarinos, Reflexiones sobre el bum gusto en las ciencias y en las artes (Madrid, 1782). Lizardi knew Muratori's work in this tr. See Reflexiones, pp. 75–76, for the art of using quotations from the Latin. Later in the Periquillo (i, 128–129), Lizardi quotes, giving this book (pp. 70–72) as his source, a passage on the importance of educating the clergy.

6 Paris, 1776; tr. as El Fruto de mis lecturas, o Máximas y sentencias politicas (Madrid, 1795).

7 Paris, 1752; tr. Agustín Ibara, Diccionario histórico abreviado que contiene la historia de los patriarchas, principes hébreos, reyes, y grandes capitanes … de los papas … i generalmente de lodas personas ilustres (Madrid, 1753–54), 5 vols. See Diccionario, v, 280, for the facts about Pope Sixtus V that Lizardi used, which are that his father's name was Peretti and that he was a “guarda vifias.”

8 Also known as the “Flos medicinae” and as the “Regimen sanitas salernitatum,” attributed to a group of 12th-century professors of the school of medicine in Salerno, Italy.

9 Cf. Le Fruit de mes lectures (Paris, 1776), pp. 11, 28, 5, 102.

10 To him is attributed the Disticha de moribus adfilium, well known, in the original Latin and in trs., in Europe during the Middle Ages and later. An early tr. of the Disticha into Sp. is Castigos y exemples de Catón (Medina del Campo, 1543). One which appeared during Lizardi's lifetime is Los dlstichos de Catón con escolios de Erasmo … tr. and enlarged by León de Arroyal (Madrid, 1797).

11 See Desiderii Erasmi Roterodami Opera Omnia (Lugduni Batavorum, MDCCII–VI), II, 955.

12 The ref. is to Claude Fleury, Catéchisme historique, contenant en abrégé l'histoire sainte et la doctrine cretienne (Paris, 1683), 2 vols, or rather, its Sp. tr.: Catecismo histórico, o Compendio de la historia sagrada y la doctrina cristiana … compueslo en ftancés por et abad Fleury … y traducido en espanol por Don Carlos de Velbeder (Paris, 1717), 2 vols., and reprinted in 1734, 1737, 1750. Other eds.: Valencia, 1728; Valladolid, 1799; Madrid, 1805.

13 José Pintón, Compendio histórico de la religión, desde la creación del mundo hasta la présente … (Madrid, 1776), 2 vols. The work was exceedingly popular: the 18th ed. bears the imprint of Madrid, 1804.

14 Jerónimo Ripalda, Catecismo y exposición breve de la doctrina cristiana (Burgos, 1591). Of the numerous subsequent eds. in Spain and America, I have used that of Puebla de los Angeles, 1784. Lizardi viewed P. Ripalda's catechism with great distrust. In his pamphlet Dudas acerca del catecismo de Ripalda (1827), Lizardi points out 15 statements which he considered erroneous.

15 The story inspired Buirette de Belloy's play Zelmire (1762) and a painting, La Piedad, by Luis de Morales (1509–86).

16 Bk. v, ch. v (“De pietate in parentes”).

17 The Latinized form of Guillaume Bury (1618–1700), a Belgian cleric. Of the many-subsequent eds. of his Brevis notilia, I have used that of Patavii, 1753. For data that Lizardi utilized, see pp. 224–225, 276–277, 358–361.

18 Madrid, 1772, ii, 353.

19 A course in theology given by the Carmelites at the Univ. of Salamanca in the 17th and 18th centuries, the title of which is: Collegii Salmalicensis Fratrum Discalceatorum Beatae Mariae de Monte Carmeli, primitivae observantiae cursus theologicus … (tomos i-ix, Lyon), 1679–87; x, Colonia, 1691; xi, Barcelona, 1727; xii, 1a parte, Lyon, 1704; 2a parte, Madrid, 1712.

20 Charles-René Billuart (1685–1757), Belgian Dominican and theologian, author of Summa S. Thomae … (Liége, 1746–51), 19 vols. A compendium of this work was publ. under the title of Summa Summae S. Thomae … (Liége, 1754), 6 vols.

21 José Faustino Cliquet, Spanish Augustinian and theologian. His chief work, to which Lizardi refers, is La Flor del Moral … (Madrid, 1733); 2a parte (Madrid, 1734), of which there were at least 12 eds. later in the 18th century.

22 Vicente Ferrer (1675–1738), Spanish Dominican and author of works on theology, one of which is Suma moral para examen de curas y confesores (Valencia, 1764; Murcia, 1771; Mexico, 1778). See J. Pastor Fuster, Biblioteca Valenciana (Valencia, 1830), ii, 25; and Ramón Martínez-Vigil, La orden de predicadores … (Madrid, 1884), p. 284.

23 Francisco Lárraga, a Dominican and professor in the Univ. of Pamplona (Spain) in the early years of the 18th century. Concerning his work to which Lizardi refers here, the Prontuario de la Teología moral, R. Martínez-Vigil (op. cit., p. 307) says: “Muchas son las ediciones que se han hecho de esta obra desde 1700 a 1866, en las cuales cada editor ha modificado el texto como le ha parecido. La verdadera doctrina del Padre Lárraga se contiene en la séptima editión, hecha en Pamplona, por Francisco Picart, 1710.” Of the wide use of the Prontuario, Vicente de la Fuente, Eistoria de las Universidades de Espana (Madrid, 1885), ii, 447, says: “ha sido por espacio de un siglo elvademecum de los moralistas de carrera abreviada, llamados antes por esta razón Larraguistas.”

24 Although the passage on this point appears in the Periquillo as a direct quotation from the acts of the Council of Trent, it consists of scattered excerpts, partly paraphrased, from the portions of that work which Lizardi indicates (“Ses. 23, cáp. 11, 13, 14, 18”;. Cf. El Sacrosanto y Ecuménico Concilio de Trenlo, traducido … por Don Ignacio Lopez de Ayala, 2nd ed. (Madrid, 1785), pp. 276, 374, 378, 383, 385–386. See also pp. 506–507 of this work, which Lizardi calls to his aid in voicing opposition to the practice, on the part of parents, of forcing their daughters to enter a religious order (iii, 91–92).

25 Juan Andrés, Spanish Jesuit and author of Origen, progreso y eslado de toda la literatura (Madrid, 1784–1806), 10 vols., who remarks (i, 182) on the inadequate education of priests.

26 Although Lizardi makes no direct reference here to a work by Santa Teresa, he may have had in mind Ch. xxii of her Vida in which she explains the three paths (vias) through which a soul, desiring perfection, passes before attaining complete communion with God; but elsewhere in the Periquillo (i, 144; iii, 128) he refers to her comments on the critical attitude of the world toward one who undertakes a journey along the “road of perfection” (Libro de su vida, in B.A.E., liii, 96).

27 The ref. is to Joseph López Ezquerra, Lucerna Myslica pro directoribus animarum, quae omnia prorsus difficilia et obscura, quae in dirigendis spirilibus evinire soient, mira dexleritate clarificat… (Caesar-Augustae, 1691). See M. Jimenez Catalan, Ensayo de una tipografla zaragozana del siglo XVII (Zaragoza, 1925), p. 417.

28 Fray Antonio Arbiol y Diez (1651–1726), an Aragonese Franciscan, author of many moral and religious works, one of which is Desengaños místicos a las almas detenidas o engañadas en el camino de la perfeccian, 3rd ed. (Zaragoza, 1713). For his life and works, see F. de Latassa y Ortín, Bibliotecas antigua y nueva de escritores aragoneses (Zaragoza, 1884–86), i, 130–133. For an explanation and discussion of the mystic terminology which Lizardi uses here (i, 126) see Arbiol, Desengaiios, pp. 390 ff., 402–409, 442–449, 490–497, 505, 508.

29 Thomas à Kempis (1379?–1471), to whom is attributed “De Imitatione de Christi” (1418). Two weil-known trs. of it into Sp., of which there have been many eds., are by Fray Luis de Leon, in 1538, and by Padre Nieremberg in 1656.

30 Tomás de Villacastín (1570–1649), Spanish Jesuit. His best known work is Manual de consider-aciones y exercicios espirituales para saber lener oración mental … (Valladolid, 1612), of which there have been many eds. See C. Sommervogel, Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jesus (Bruxelles-Paris, 1895), vi, 1865. A curious book attests the influence of Villacastín's Manual in Mexico: Jaculatorias perpétuas para el uso de los dicíipulos [sic] de la santa Escuela de Christo Senor Nuesiro, fundada en el Convento de Sr. santo Domingo de México. Sacadas de las meditaciones del P. Tomás de Villacastin, por D. Juan de Dios del Valle… (México, 1787).

31 Jean-Baptiste Massillon (1663–1742), Sermones. Tr. Pedro Diaz de Guerenu, Madrid, 1773–79, and repr. in 1800, 11 vols.; and Sermones de adviento, Madrid, 1753–78, 6 vols. Louis Bourdaloue (1632–1704;, a Jesuit. Two eds. of his works in Sp. tr. were issued: Sermones … (Amberes, 1740), 12 vols., and (Madrid, 1796), 16 vols.

32 Ignacio Erbolada, Fantasmas de Madrid, y Estafermos de la Corte, obra donde se dan al publico los errores y falacias de irato humano … (Salamanca, 1761(?)–63), in which the chief argument against dancing (i, 300–327), that it influenced the passions and induced women to surrender their virtue, may have been Lizardi's source. In his argument against dancing, Erbolada, Fantasmas (i, 307), concludes that “El baile es un círculo, cuyo centro es el diablo, y la circunferencia los bailarines,” while Lizardi, in his diatribe against the same form of amusement, attributes to “un Padre de Iglesia” the same adage only slightly altered, “El baile es un círculo, cuyo centro es el demonio” (ii, 25).

33 It is certain that Lizardi knew Padre Arbiol's Desengaños (see n. 28) and he may have read the same author's disapproval of dancing in his Lafamilia regulada, con doctrina de la sagrada escrilura …, 5th ed. (Madrid, 1725), p. 58.

34 Barcelona, vi (1774), No. lxx.

35 By the Jesuit Juan Martínez de la Parra; 1st ed. (México, 1691, 1692, 1695). Of the 26 eds. and reprinting of this work, I have used that of Madrid, 1775, of which see pp. 189 and 232 for the 2 instances in which Lizardi refers to it.

36 From p. 184. By following this source, Lizardi attributes erroneously this incident to Boniface VIII instead of to Benedict XL Boniface VIII came of an illustrious family.

37 Jerónimo Dutari, Spanish Jesuit and author of Vida cristiana, o prácticafâcil de entablarla con medios y verdades fundamentales, contra ignorancias o descuidos comunes. In the 18th ed. (Madrid, 1794), pp. 29–30, the aphorism in question appears.

38 The story is related by Joseph Boneta, Gracias de la gracia, Saladas agudezas de los Santos, 2nd ed. (Pamplona, 1719), p. 388. Referring to the same story, Feijóo states in “Chistes de N.” (Teatro critico, Madrid, 1781, vi, 398) that it was impossible for Suárez to have figured in the story. On the subject of forcing girls to enter a religious order, Lizardi quotes (iii, 92, 95) from another book by Boneta, Gritos del infierno para despertar ai mundo … (Zaragoza, 1706), The pages he cites correspond to the ed. of Madrid, 1777.

39 Lizardi knew these works in tr. Of Buchan's work, Palau lists a tr. of Madrid, 1785, and in my possession is another, Medicina doméstica (Madrid, 1798), by Antonio de Alcedo. Of Ballexserd's work in tr.—Crianzafísica de los ninos desde su nacimiento hasta la pubertad, by Patricio de España—there were three eds.: Madrid, 1765, 1787, and 1806. Its influence was soon felt in Mexico, notably in the Errores del Entendimiento humano (Puebla, 1781), probably by J. Benito Diaz y Gamarra y Dávalos. Of Blanchard's work, a tr. by Ignacio García Malo, Escuela de Costumbres, appeared in Madrid in 1786 and 1797.1 have used the third ed. (Madrid, 1824, 4 vols.). José Maria Barquera, one of the eds. of the Diario de México (1805–17) publicized the ideas of these writers during 1805, 1806, and 1808 (Nos. 79, 173–174, 450–451, 986–987, 991, 1000–02, 1018–19, 1184, 1187).

40 The idea that Lizardi proposes here—that an essential qualification of a teacher is to be able to establish a bond of confidence between himself and his pupil—proceeds from the Escuela de costumbres, particularly the ch. “El Preceptor o Ayo” (iv, 254–267), in which Blanchard emphasizes the close relationship that should exist between tutor and pupil.

41 Cf. Escuela de costumbres, particularly the ch. “Reprended sin aspereza” (iii, 76–94). In 1805 and 1806, more than 10 years before the publ. of the Periquillo, a series of articles against corporatpunishment in schools appeared in the Diario de México (Nos. 45, 46, 86, 87, 110).

42 Madrid, 1785, 2 vols. See ii, 92–93, for the passage from this work that Lizardi had in mind.

43 Two Sp. trs. of this moral and didactic work (Lisboa, 1779, 3 vols.), by the celebrated Portuguese scientist Theodoro de Almeida (1722–1803), were very popular in Spain and her colonies: El H ombre feliz independiente del mundo y de lafortuna …, tr. by Joseph F. Monserrate y Urbina (Madrid, 1785), 3 vols., and in 1788, 1790, and 1796; and El Feliz independiente del mundo y lafortuna …, tr. by Francisco Vazquez (Madrid, 1799, 4 vols., 1800, 3 vols., and 1806, 4 vols.).

44 Historia de los niños célebres, traducida del francés por D. Miñano y las Casas (Madrid, 1800), 3 vols., which attempts to adapt reading for children to their own interest and age.

45 Recreaciones y desahogos del hombre sensible. Sucesos verdaderos, exemples sublimes … conformes a las máximas de la sana filosofía y de la religion … Obra que escribió en francés el sabio Mr. Arnauld … Por el B. D. V. D. F. S. (Madrid, 1798, 6 vols.).

48 A collection of novelettes by Cristobal Lozano (1609–67), Soledades de la vida y desengaños del mundo (Madrid, 1658), of which there were at least 14 later eds.

47 The ref. is to María de Zayas y Sotomayor (1590–1661), author of two collections of amorous tales, Eonesto y entrelenido sarao (Zaragoza, 1637) and Saraos (Barcelona, 1647), which in a later printing (Madrid, 1795) appeared under the title of Novelas ejemplares y amorosas, I y ii parte.

48 A novel by Ginés Pérez de Hita, Eisloria de los bandosde los Zegríes y Abencerrajes (la Parte, 1595; 2a Parte, 1604), which is also known by the title of Guerras civiles de Granada.

49 A novel of chivalry entitled Eistoria del Emperador Carlomagno y los doce pares de Francia (Sevilla, 1528). The popularity of this work, of which there were at least 14 subsequent eds., extended into the 19th century.

50 Teatro crítico (Madrid, 1778), iv, 26–44.

51 Ibid., viii (1779), 390–126.

52 “Memorial presentado al Rey,” in Obras de Floridablanca, in B.A.E., lix, 322.

53 “Instruction reservada,” in ibid., p. 221.

54 Cf. B.A.E., LXII, 551–602.

55 “Carta I,” ibid., pp. 556 ff. 56 “Carta IV,” ibid., pp. 589 ff. 57 “Carta II,” ibid., pp. 556 ff.

58 See “Cartas xii and xii.”

59 Ignacio Rodriguez de Calasanz, Discernimiento filosófico de ingenies para arles y ciencias (Madrid, 1795); for his criticism of the teaching of Latin, see pp. 161–162.

60 These were the very words, too, that Marcos de Obregón whispered into the ear of the lovesick Moorish lady, and to which he referred as some useless knowledge he had picked up at the Univ. of Salamanca. Cf. Vicente Espinel, Vida de Marcos de Obregón, Lib. ii Disc. 10.

61 The reference is slightly erroneous, for No. x of Vol. vii (1778) contains no criticism of logic. Numbers xi (“De lo que conviene quitar en las Sûmulas”) and XII (“De lo que conviene quitar y poner en la lógica y metafîsica”) are pertinent. For other essays on the same subject, see ibid., viii (1779), no. 1 (“Abusos de las disputas verbales”) and 2 (“Desenredo de sofismas”).

62 Padre Isla, another arch-enemy of the Peripatetics, makes a somewhat similar statement in regard to a confirmed Aristotelian in his Historia del famoso predicador Fray Gerundio de Campazas (Madrid, 1813), i, 290.

63 The authors are François Pára du Phanjas (1724–97), a French Jesuit philosopher and mathematician, and Jean-Antoine Nollet (1700–70), but they were not joint authors of a “Física experimental,” as the ref. would lead one to conclude. Lizardi probably had in mind Nollet's Leçons de physique expérimentale (Paris, 1743), 6 vols., of which there is a Spanish tr.—-Lecciones de fisica experimental (Madrid, 1757), 6 vols.—by Antonio Zacagnini.

64 This work appeared originally in Portuguese, Recreacao filosofica, ou Dialogo sobre a filosofia natural (Lisboa, 1751–52), 3 vols. The Sp. tr.—Recreación filosófica, o diálogo sobre la filosofía natural (Madrid, 1785), 10 vols., repr. in 8 vols. (Madrid, 1792)—was popular in Spain and her colonies. “Las Recreaciones filosóficas” —states Menéndez y Pelayo, Historia de los Helerodoxos españoles (Madrid, 1930), vi, 411—“contribuyeron, juntamente con el Teatro critico y con el Espectáculo de la Naturaleza, del abate Pluche, y con las Reflexiones filosóficas, de Sturm, a difundir entre los jóvenes y las mujeres y el vulgo no erudito de la Peninsula una noticia más o menos superficial, más o menos razonada, de los fenómenos naturalesy de los adelantos de la física experimental.” Although Lizardi does not mention the work of the devout German scholar G. E. Sturm, the Sp. tr. of which is Reflexiones sobre la Naturaleza o consideraciones de las obras de Dios, 2nd ed. (Madrid, 1803), 4 vols., there is good reason to believe that he made use of it, particularly in regard to Periquillo's one good teacher and for his explanation of comets and eclipses as natural phenomena.

65 The 2 works are the Dictionnaire raisonné de physique (Paris, 1781), 3 vols., and the Traité elementaire ou principes de physique … (Paris, 1789), 3 vols., by Mathurin-Jacques Brisson (1723–1806). Of these works I have seen the following trs. into Sp.: Diccionario universal de fisica, tr. by C. C. y F. X. C. (Madrid, 1796–1802), 10 vols., and Tratado elemental o principios de fisica, by Julián Antonio Rodríguez (Madrid, 1803–04), 4 vols.

66 NoëUl-Antoine Pluche, Spectacle de la natwe, ou Entretiens sur l'histoire naturelle et les sciences … (Paris, 1732–35), 9 vols. The first tr. of this work of which I have knowledge is Espectáculo de la Naturaleza, o Conversaciones acerca de las particularidades de la historia natural …, tr. by Estevan de Terreros y Pando (Madrid, 1753–55), 16 vols.

67 Georges-Louis Leclerc Buffon, Histoire naturelle (Paris, 1749–67), 15 vols. The 1st Sp tr. of this monumental work is by José Clavijo y Fajardo, Historia natural (Madrid, 1785) 21 vols., but I have seen only the 2nd ed. (Madrid, 1791–1805).

68 Librería de escribanos que compuso Don Josef Febrero … y ha reformado de nuevo D. Josef Marcos Gutierrez. I have not seen the 1st ed. of this work, but I have the 5th (Madrid, 1819).

69 Cf. Febrero, Lib. de escr. (Madrid, 1806), in, Primera Parte, 420; and the Febrero-Gutiérrez rev. (Madrid, 1819), i, x–xii.

70 Cf. Febrero-Gutiérrez, i, 239, 280.

71 Ibid., ii, 511–513.

72 Ibid., i, 92–93; ii, 230.

73 Manuel de Aliaga Bayod y Salas Guasqui, El Escribano perfecio; Espejo de escribanos … (Tarragona, 1788–99), ii, 62.

74 While Lizardi does not cite sources here, his statement of the law is too close to that in the Práctica criminal con nota de los delitos, sus penas, presunciones, y circunstancias que los agravan y disminuyen … (Valencia, 1749), of Joseph Berni y Catalá, as to leave any doubt.

75 Here he acknowledges his source, Berní's Práctica criminal.

76 Manuel de Lardizábal, Discurso sobre las penas contrahido a las leyes criminates de Espana (Madrid, 1782).

77 He had in mind Félix Colon de Larreátigue, Juzgados militares de Espana y sus Indias (Madrid, 1788), 4 vols.

78 Cf. pp. 34, 67–68, 189.

79 Cf. pp. 46, 60–61, 67–68, 72.

80 Félix Palacios, Palestra farmacéutica quimico-galénica (Madrid), of which there were 7 eds. between 1706 and 1792.

81 Thomas Fuller, Pharmacopea Bateana (Amsterdam, 1718).

82 Pharmacopea Matritensis (Madrid, 1751 and 1762).

83 Carl von Linné, Philosophia botanica (Stockholm, 1751).

84 Antoine L. Lavoisier, Traité élementaire de Chimie (Paris, 1805, Sp. tr. by Juan José Munarriz.

85 Cf. Feijóo, Teatro crltico, i (1778), 132–135; and Cartas erudilas, v (1781), Cart, xxi, 400. In a pamphlet, Chanzas y veras (1813), Lizardi refers specifically to Feijóo's opinions in regard to medicine.

86 Cf. Teat, crít., I, 125–130; Cart, erud., i, 165–169.

87 Cf. Teat, crít., i, 120–125, 145–146; v (1778), 276–278.

88 Cf. Teat, crit., ii (1779), 307–308.

89 Simon-André Tissot, L'Avis au peuple sur sa santé … Ouvrage composé en faveur des habitants de la campagne (Liége, 1763). I have seen 2 Sp. eds.: the 2nd—Tratado de las enfermedades más frequentes de las gentes del campo …, tr. by Juan Galisteo y Xiorro … (Madrid, 1776) and the 6th (Madrid, 1795). Tissot's remarks on charlatans, to which Lizardi refers, are in Ch. xxxvi, 2nd ed., pp. 510–528; 6th ed., pp. 437–453.

90 See n. 39.

91 Mme François Fouquet (Marie de Maupeou), Recueil de Receptes choisies … (Ville-Franche, 1665), of which there were numerous eds. Concerning its Sp. tr. {Obras médico-quirúrgicas, Valladolid, 1748, 2 vols.), Palau states: “Esta traductión tiene valor … por la buena fama que goza entre las clases populares y los amigos de la medicina casera.” He lists also another ed. (Salamanca, 1750, 2 vols.).

92 Tesoro de medicina o de las plantas medicinales de Nueva España, by the religious ascetic Gregorio López. This work, to which Lizardi is referring, is included in Padre Francisco Losa's Vida del siervo de Dios Gregorio Lopez (Madrid, 1727), pp. 313–442.

93 In all eds. of the Periquillo, “Vanegas,” but probably an error for Venegas (Juan Manuel), author of Compendio de la medicina: o medicina práctica (Mexico, 1788). For an article on him, see the Gaceta de México, 7 July 1789.

94 Matías de Porras, a famous Spanish physician of the 17th century, on whom Lope de Vega bestowed high praise in his Laurel de A polo.

95 Thomas Willis (1621–75), a famous English physician.

96 Author of Compendio anatómico (Madrid, 1750–52).

97 Georges de Lafaye (1701–81), a famous French surgeon.

98 José Amar, professor in the Univ. of Zaragosa in the 18th century. The title of his work referred to here is Inslrucción curativa de las calenturas vulgarmente conocidas con el nombre de tabardillos. Cf. Mariano Gonzalez de Sámano, Compendio histórico de la medicina española (Barcelona, 1850), p. 349.

99 Hermann Boerhaave (1668–1738), whose medical works were universally esteemed. Feijóo (Cartas erud., Madrid, 1781, IV, Cart, ix, pp. 135–136) applauds Boerhaave's dictum that there was no such thing as a specific remedy for all diseases.

100 Gerard von Swieten (1700–72), renowned author of medical works and professor of medicine in the Univ. of Leyden and of Vienna. Feijóo, who doubted the efficacy of bleeding, cites him as one of the authorities who held a similar opinion (ibid., v, 253–254).

101 Michael Ernst Ettmüller (1644–83), professor of surgery and anatomy in the Univ. of Leipzig. Feijóo (Teal, crít., i [1778], 154–155, and vu [1778], 226–227) commends him for his opinions on diet.

102 Lazare Rivière (1589–1655), author of some widely used books on medicine, and professor in the Univ. of Montpellier.

103 Previously, in “Sobre la diversión de toros” (Alacena de Frioleras, 1815, Nos. 2 and 3), he had satirized the national sport. In Spain, too, in the latter half of the 18th century, it had its detractors. It was prohibited, except to raise funds for charity, in 1785 by Charles III. Jovellanos denounced it as barbarous in his “Memoria sobre las diversiones públicas,” 1790 (B.A.E., XLVI, 487), as did Cadalso, in Cartas Marruecas (in Obras, Madrid, 1803, iii, 323–324).

104 Opposition to these institutions appeared, too, in Spain in the latter part of the 18th century, and finally, by a law of 11 October 1820, they were abolished. See J. Francisco Pacheco, Comentario a las leyes de desvinculación, 3rd ed. (Madrid, 1847), pp. 9–62.

105 Francisco Xavier de Peñaranda, Resolución universal sobre el sistema económico más convenient a España (Madrid, 1789), pp. 55, 72–74, 79.

108 Melchor Rafael de Macanaz, “Representatión hecha al Rey D. Felipe V,” which, as Lizardi states, is in the Semanario erudito, vii, of which see pp. 199–203 for the parts he quotes.

107 This thought could have come from Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of a Country (1776), a digest of which was publ. in French by Condorcet. This in turn was tr. into Sp.: Compendio de la obra inglesa intitulada Riqueza de las Naciones …, tr. by Carlos de Irujo (Palma, 1814). Cf., in this work, particularly Lib. IV, pp. 140–206. A journal that circulated in Mexico, Semanario de agricullura y artes dirigido a los pirrocos (Madrid, 1797–1808), contains an extract (xiv, 284–288, 298–304, 315–320) of Jeremiah's Bentham's Manual of Political Economy, which is more or less a restatement of Smith's views. This statement: “Toda riqueza no es otra cosa sino el producto espontáneo o el resultado del trabajo del hombre empleado inmediatamente sobre la tierra …” occurs (p. 285) in the extract.

108 Histoire naturelle de l'homme (1749). See Œuvres complètes (Paris, 1828), xiii, 458.

109 See also his “Contra la odiosa preocupación de calificar a los hombres por el lugar de su nacimiento …,” in El Pensador Mexicano (1813), Nos. 3 and 4, and “Sobre amor de la patria,” in ibid. (1814), No. 1. While such ideas were not uncommon in the 18th century, Lizardi is probably most indebted to Feijóo for them. Cf. “Antipatía de franceses y espafloles,” in Teat crit., ii (1779), 223–229, and “Amor de la patria,” in ibid., iii (1777), 223–248.

110 This reform was also advocated in Spain in the latter half of the 18th century, and although Charles III favored it he was unable to put it into effect. In 1813, however, the Junta de Sanidad of Madrid issued an ordinance prohibiting the burying of the dead in the city limits. See Pruebas de ser contraria a la práctica de todas las naciones … y perjudicial a la salud de los vivos enterrar los difunlos en las iglesias y los convenlos. Publicadas por Don Benito Bails (Madrid, 1785); and C. Cambronero, “Cosas de antafio,” in Revista Contemporánea, cxix (1900), 161–164. In Mexico City, during the epidemic of 1813, the same reform was advocated but met with opposition. For articles in favor of it, see El Diario de México, 2a época, l (1813), Nos. 40, 41, 46–48, and 176.

111 Lizardi also berates the custom, on account of the expense involved, in his Testamenlo y despedida, 2a parte (1827). The practice was also prevalent in Spain, and the Franciscans, whose garb was particularly favored by the populace, enjoyed a handsome revenue from the sale of their habits. Cf. José Canga Argüelles, Diccionario de hacienda … (Londres, 1826–27), iv, 260.

112 Lizardi had certainly read some terrifying articles by Feijóo on premature burials: “Senales de muerte actual,” particularly Sects. 20–22, in Teat, crit., v (1778), 134–160; “Sobre evitar los funestos errores de enterrar a los hombres vivos,” in Cart, erud., i (1781), 125–134; and “Contra el abuso de acelerar mâs que conviene los entierros,” in ibid., iv, 181–205.

113 Pedro Recio (2a Parte, Cáps, xlvii and li), Yelmo de Mambrino (1a Parte, cáp. xxi), Ginés de Pasamonte (la Parte, cáp. xxi, and 2a Parte, cáp. xxvi); pudiera coger un púlpito (2a Parte, cáp. xxii).

114 Empresa 6.

116 Lizardi probably obtained this information about Villegas from the biographical sketch of him by Vicente de los Ríos, in the 2 vol. (Madrid, 1779) ed. of Las Eróticas, of which see i, ix.

116 N. Alonso Cortés notes in his ed. of Villegas' Eróticas (Clásicos Castellanos, xxi, 27) that the number of this Elegía is viii instead of vii, as had appeared in other eds.

117 The poem, which Lizardi does not indicate, is El cortesano y discreto, político y moral, principe de los romances …, by the celebrated Sp. poet Gabriel Bocángel. There were at least 4 eds. (1655, 1709, 1724, 1755) in Mexico City.

118 The epigram was taken from the Agudezas de Juan Owen, a tr. in Sp. verse by Francisco de la Torre … (Madrid, 1674), i, 113.

119 La moza de cántaro, ii, vi, 1237–80.

120 The poem, the 1st line of which is “Señora, aquel primer pie,” is in Sor Juana's Obras, ii (Sevilla, 1692), 291.

121 Respectively, “Los cangrejos” (Fábulas, Lib. v, vii) and “El murciélago y la comadreja” (Lib. viii, v).

122 The ref. is to the story of the adventures of Bertoldo and his son Bertoldino, by the Italian Giulio Cesare Croce (1550–1609), to which were added, in the 18th century, the adventures of Cacasenno, Bertoldo's grandson. There were two trs. of the tale into Sp.: Historia de la vida, keckos, y astucias sutilisimas del rústico Bertoldo, la de Bertoldino su hijo y la de Cacaseno su nieto (Madrid, 1745) and Historia de la vida, hechos, y astucias sutilisimas del rûstico Bertoldo … Tr. from Italian by Juan Bartholomé (Barcelona, 1769). Reprintings of these trs., in Spain and Spanish America, have continued to our own times.

123 The ref. is to “El Calderero, o el mutuo agradecimiento”—the story of an old servant who supported his mistress, a lady of quality, while she lived in poverty in the San Germain district of Paris—in Las Veladas de la Quinta (Madrid, 1788, 2 vols.), 2nd ed. (Madrid, 1876), pp. 57–74, a tr. by Fernando Gilman of Les Veillées du Chateau …, 3 vols. (Paris, 1784), by the Countess of Genlis. Lizardi may have known the story from Las Veladas, which he mentions in Dan Catrín de la Fachenda (Mexico, 1832), p. 19; or he may have known it through a play based on it, El Calderero de San German, o el mutuo agradecimiento by Gaspar Zabala y Zamora (d. 1813), which appeared on the Madrid stage in the years just preceding and following the turn of the century.

124 This identical tr. of “Diseur de bons mots, mauvais caractère” (Pensées, Art. vi, 19) occurs in Pensamientos de Pascal sobre la religión. Tr. into Sp. by Andrés Boggiero, Zaragoza, 1790, p. 245.

125 Respectively, Maxims 503, 214, and 216. The Réflexions were tr. into Sp. under the title of Reflexiones, sentencias y máximas morales, tr. by Luis de Luque de Leiva, Cadiz, 1781. This work was offered for sale in the Gaceta de México, vi, No. 39 (27 May 1794).

126 Cf. L'Art Poétique, Chant 11, ll. 82–84. Two Sp. trs. of this work existed at the time: Valencia, 1787, by J. B. Mandramay y Carbonell; and Madrid, 1807, by Juan Bautista de Arriaza. The latter was advertised in the Diario de México, viii, No. 894 (11 March 1808).

127 Respuesta del Pensador al defensor del Payo del Rosario (1825).