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The Influence of Superstition on Vocabulary

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 December 2020

Hope E. Allen
Hope E. Allen*
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Early Modern English Dictionary
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Extract

Through the notion of corruption, we come to the third example of bug sb. in Moufet's great pioneer work of entomology, of which the first two had been attached to the dung-beetle. As already described (l, 1037), the Insectorum … Theatrum was finished in 1590, though not printed till 1634.

Type
Research Article
Information
PMLA , Volume 51 , Issue 4 , December 1936 , pp. 904 - 920
Copyright
Copyright © Modern Language Association of America, 1936

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References

1 The bibliographical references will not be repeated. As in the earlier article, illustrations will be given in many cases by citing slips from the files of the EMnED.

2 In the original manuscript (B. Mus. Sl. 4014) of Moufet's pioneer work of entomology, after the end of the text, as printed, Moufet adds: “Finis. 30. Martij. 1589. Stylo veteri.” Professor Helen Sandison points out to me this interesting early use of “Old Style.”

3 “Porcine names” for the wood-louse are common in all European languages, and do not seem to fit its habits or appearance closely enough to explain such widespread nomenclature, which might, therefore, seem to point to the existence once of such a myth as explains, all over the world, the title “little king” for the wren; see my note, “'Little King,' 'Sow,' 'Lady-Cow',” JAF-L. xlviii (1935), 191–193.—Moufet here (and passim) gives names from many languages. An exhaustive list of names for the wood-louse would be impressive. Many, with other insect names here discussed, came to my attention through articles on insect-names by Dr. E. Adams, Trans. Phil. Soc., 1858–60. Some names for wood-lice (pill, etc.) are probably derived from their use in early medicine (see Moufet). The name given in classical times (oniscus) is thought to be derived from the color; see O. Keller, Die Antike Tierwelt (Leipzig, 1913), ii, 482, kindly pointed out by Professor MacCartney.

4 The English edition of Rowland misprints chesbug (Sl. ms. f. 186) as cherbug.

5 See an enquiry on this subject by the present writer, “English Curds—or Fresh Cheese,” N. and Q., July 6, 1935.

6 Adams, op. cit. (1860), p. 13.—Moufet (supra) gives another example of the name sow (not in OD, but cf. EDD). The American sow-bug is used in Suffolk (as I am informed by Miss D. M. B. Ellis), a region which sent many early colonists to America. A name in modern dialect is God Almighty's pig (EDD); various Continental names thus give a porcine name with a religious association. For assistance with some of the vocabulary discussed in this paper I am indebted to Mr. and Mrs. F. J. Cassidy and Mr. H. B. Allen. Skinner (1671) connects thurse-lice with Jove (Adams, 1860, p. 19), apparently because he confuses thurse with Thor.

7 The present writer once camped in a very deep but fertile canyon in Arizona where the only inhabitants were an old couple so notoriously dirty that they could get no market for their butter, except for use in soap-making. Their milk-shed was low, and the pans of cream were speckled with black particles.

8 Op. cit., chap. xviii, p. 427: “oft mit mehrern händen und häuptern ausgestattet. gilt diese eigenschaft von helden, so sind riesenmässige gemeinet.” Cf. Adams, loc. cit., p. 16, where he cites: millipede, Molti-pee, Monkey-pee, Many-feet, Maggy-many-feet, Meggy-mony-legs. We appear to have rustic conflations in other names.

9 The belief in this type is not extinct—to judge from European newspapers.—Cobalt was named from spirits infesting the mines—a clumsy locution.

10 Handwörterbuch des Deutschen Aberglaubens (Berlin and Leipzig, 1927–35), 7 vols., Aal-Rabe, in progress (brought to my attention by Dr. M. S. Ogden and Professor Archer Taylor). Exhaustive use of these volumes has not been made. Professor Taylor also points out to me “a similar mine of information on popular materials” in H. F. Feilberg, Bidrag til en ord over jyske almuesmål (Copenhagen, 1886–1914).

11 Lukchester (a 1485) is also found (cf. louk). Looper (q.v. OD) clearly fits certain insects. Cloporte supports the origin here taken for cheslock, etc.; chest-worm (q.v. OD), lug-dor (cf. dor) may reflect other influences. But cloporte appears as choplote (“XIIIeS.” Hatzfeld). Cloporte is coeval (Romania, xxxviii, 372).

12 F. Sidgwick, The Sources and Analogues of ‘Midsummer-Night's Dream‘ (London, 1908), p. 113.

13 See C. L. Day, Sailors Knots (New York, 1935), a popular summary, with a good bibliography; Sir J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (vide index). Witches could tie up winds.

14 Thanks are due to Professor W. E. Ayres, of the Department of Dairy Industry, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, for assistance on this point. He sent to us, from Dr. P. F. Sharp, a bibliography of rennet as found in miscellaneous sources, and at his request Mr. K. J. Monrad of Chr. Hansen's laboratories wrote to Denmark.

15 Cf. Deutsche Mythologie, 4th ed. (1875), Chap. xviii, pp. 435, 437–438: “Auch lubbe, lübbe scheint in niedersächsischen gegenden gleichviel mit plumper riese, auf dem Corneliusberg bei Helmstedt werden lübbensteine gezeigt, nach dem brem. wb. 3, 92 bedeutet lubbe einen ungeschickten faulen menschen, es ist das engl. lubber, lobber (tölpel), bei Michel Beham (Mones anz. 1835, 450b) lüpel, vgl. altn. lubbi (hirsutus). hierzu kommt eine merkwürdige urkunde des bischofs Gebhard von Halberstadt, der noch im j. 1462 über heidnische Verehrung eines wesens klagt, das man den guden lubben nenne, und dem man auf einem berge bei Schochwitz in der grafschaft Mansfeld thierknochen darbringe. Nicht nur haben sich solche uralte knochenanhaüfungen dort an dem Lupberge vorgefunden (man vgl. den Augsburger perleich s. 244) … Hieraus leitet sich nun leicht ab, dass den riesen dummheit beigemessen wird, gegenüber den verständigen menschen und schlauen zwergen … das scheint auf einen trägen bergriesen zu zielen, wir werden sehn, dass in spätern volkssagen die riesen dumme dutten genannt sind, in der benennung lubbe, lübbe wurde gleichfalls die unbeholfne, plumpe natur nachgewiesen, und wo wir heutzutage den teufel dumm nennen ist ein alter riese gemeint (s. nachtr.).” This discussion will be useful in connection with other characteristics of Robin Goodfellow, even if not finally supported. Cf. Torp-Falk s.v. l⊘be (lap sb. 2), l⊘v (leaf), lubben (lubber). The Germanic cognates in general support a meaning “lout.”

16 The term good (q.v.OD s.v. sense 2 d) applied to the fairies (“euphemistically”) does not appear till 1588 in English literature, but Grimm's references to such locutions as bonnes hommes, bonnes femmes, etc. (vide index) suggest a wide and perhaps early use. In view of the actual services rendered by the beings thus designated this is hardly “euphemistic.”

17 Dr. Hull has brought to my attention early Irish lú-chorp(án), lit. “small-body, pigmy” which seems to mean “fairy”; cf. W. Stokes, Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore (Oxford, 1890), p. 395. This compound later has various spellings, among which occurs in Modern Irish the metathetic form luprachán, cf. P. S. Dinneen, Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla (Dublin, 1927), p. 683. Such a word, as well as the Teutonic forms already discussed, might be kept in mind in considering the problems outlined above, though, of course any suggestion of a possible connection is most tentative. The Irish spirits called leprechauns performed offices somewhat like those assigned to Milton's “Lubber fiend.” “In the townland of Creevagh, near Cong in Mayo, there is a cave called Mullenlupragaun the leprechauns ‘mill,‘ where in former times the people left their caskeens of corn at nightfall, and found them full of meal in the morning.” (Irish Names of Places, P. W. Joyce, (Dublin, n.d.) i, 191, pointed out by Dr. Hull.) An anonymous Oxford slip also connects “lubrican (or leprechaun)” with lubberkin (for which, however, there is no citation in the files). Lubbard (q.v. OD) might go back to lub rather than lubber (cf. boggard).

18 Cockaigne (q.v.OD) lay “fur in se bi west spayngne” (off Galicia?). The identification with lubberland might raise the question whether conceivably there was any connection with Galician coca (supra, pp. 1044–46). Cocagna had special folk-developments connected with eating, in Romance countries (Littré), but in the English poem which gives the earliest reference (supra) the “pleasures of the table” are only a part of the general sensual indulgence “exactly the same which Beasts enjoy” which makes the subject. Johnson suggested this as the source of cockney: this suggestion would, if there were a connection between coco and cocagna, give the word for the townsman, much as lob, etc. may give the name for the countryman: in each case a “bug” would become a fool. Cf. cockney, sense 2 (a spoiled child), “ficta” (Prompt. Parv), and “A Castle in Spain” (1400).

19 Some traces may have been left on vocabulary by the goblin's activities (outside household drudgery) as “a masterless man.” A variety of words meaning itinerant traders, those who do emergency-work, or mere patching, might be investigated on this basis: cf. bodger, botcher, cobbler, hobbler, etc. The practical and the fantastic are combined in Robin's reference to “my gambols o' the country still, selling of fish, short service, shoeing the wild mare, or roasting of robin-redbreast” (Love Restored, cited, Latham, p. 239).

20 Grimm points out that the Vulgate (Is. xiii 21) gives pilosi where the Septuagint has ; he shows very early testimony to homesprites under the same term (chap. xvii, in discussing scrat). Cf. above, n. 15, “altn. lubbi (hirsutus),” and Torp-Falk s.v. lue II.

21 G. R. Owst, Literature and Pulpit in Medieval England (Cambridge, 1933), p. 270. “Master Rypon” is prior of Finchale, 1397 on. See Owst, Preaching in Medieval England (Cambridge, 1926), p. 54. The Dominican, Bromyard (Chancellor of Cambridge, c. 1383, ibid., p. 68) gives the story twice. Gerard is of course a common medieval name, and the story is naturally brought forward here more as a clue than as evidence: cf. infra, n. 38, for a medieval interpretation of Gerold of some interest here.

22 Grimm reports (ibid.), in regard to the Lupberg mentioned in the discussion of lubbe, etc. (supra, n. 15), that a neighboring church has “das eingemauerte bild eines götzen,” which tradition says was brought there from the Lupberg. “A footnote states: ”die abbildung enthält aber nichts riesenhaftes, eher eine göttin, auf einem wolfe stehend.“ This might show lupus as an early loan-word in Germany (prob, before luppe, etc.; cf. n. 28).

23 Cf. ibid. Germ. laub with OD s.v. leaf, and I, 317; for lupus, volpes, cf. Walde, Lat. Etymol. Wörth., Torp-Falk, Feist, Etymol. Wörtb. d. Got. Spr.

24 J. R. Reinhard and V. E. Hull, “Bran and Sceolang,” Speculum, xi (1936), 42–59. A new text of an Irish story concerning animal-transformations is here printed, with analogues, discussion, and a comprehensive bibliography on the subject of the werewolf.

25 Trans. Amer. Philol. Soc. xxvi (1895), 79–146. This article collects a great number of citations, useful as lexicographical material. It was pointed out to me by Professor Archer Taylor. Mr. Scott gives (p. 127) the first example of the use of Robin Goodfellow (1489), which was overlooked by the OD and discovered independently by Miss Latham (p. 223).

26 Dr. Allen Mawer, “Animal and Personal Names in OE Place-Names,” Mod. Lang. Rev. xiv (1919), 243, in discussing wulf, notes “patronynmic forms in -ingas which clearly go back to an early stage of the settlement and even to the Heroic Age.”

27 Dr. Hull kindly pointed out to me Irish dóel, dáel: R. Thurneysen, Die irische Helden- und Königsage bis zum siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Halle, 1921), p. 94: “Dubthach Dael Ulad der 'Mistkäfer der Ulter,' bisweilen auch Daeltenga 'Mistkäfer-Zunge' genannt.” Dr. Hull points out dóel, dáel as “frequent in proper nouns”; also Dubthach Doel Ulad as occurring in The Táin Bó Cúalnge, ed. J. Strachan and J. G. O'Keeffe (Dublin, 1912) p. 76. “This text was composed as early as the eighth century.” “In The Martyrology of Oengus the Culdee, ed. W. Stokes (London, 1905), pp. 42–44 a dael is described which sucks the blood of a holy woman thereby destroying the whole of one of her sides.”

28 A convenient dichotomy may have taken place in the case of the Fr. derivatives of Lat. lupus, which gave both loup (“le p ne se lie jamais”), and loupe (from lupa). Littré cites an obsolete meaning “ulcer” for the former, for the latter “tumor,” and a series of transferred senses such as would give some support to the conjecture (here made tentatively) that lupus in the beginning may have carried a general sense such as “shape-shifter.” Cf. s.v. loupe, the meanings “excrescences or knots in wood; 'extravasation' in the shells of pearl-oysters; imperfect precious stones (”xiv s.“); the rudimentary microscope; a term of metallurgy; a term of the mint; ”caisse en bois qui sert aux peintres de décor pour s'asseoir ou s'élever.“ All these meanings are ascribed by Littré to the sense of roundness in lupa, a tumor. In OF, Godefroy cites extensive use of loupe as a derisive gesture (cf. also the common lobbe ”mocquerie“). This series of meanings is largely duplicated in German lupe, luppe and suggests those shown by Grimm and Bächtold-Stäubli to have arisen in connection with supernatural beings (a subject that will later be discussed further). Cf. also OD s. v. wolf. Since the founders of Rome were suckled by a wolf, the wolf-cult in Latin culture must have been a profound influence (the famous Capitoline bronze is moreover supposed to be Etruscan). L. Sainéan gathers together a useful collection of images drawn from the wolf in Zeitschr. f. Roman. Phil., Beihefte, x, which are difficult in some cases to connect with the animal, as he would do. I owe my knowledge of this work to Professor Wagner, and to Miss Edna Williams information as to research on homonyms.

29 Vide supra, n. 24.—The natural dangers of masked persons in times of unrest is seen by the legislation on this subject cited by Chambers, op. cit., p. 393. For rebels impersonating Robin Hood, etc., see Child, Ballads (Boston, 1888), III, 41.

30 R. W. Bond, Early Plays from the Italian (Oxford, 1911), p. 186.

31 T. Wright, The Political Songs of England (Camden Soc., 1839), p. 380.

32 The influence of spirits in the house was especially feared at a time of death or of birth (cf. Bächthold-Stäubli, s. v. Fenster; and Geburt, c. 417). During birth, doors should not be locked or knots left untied: windows should be opened at time of death, to allow the soul uninterrupted egress. The numbers of spirits believed to be lurking about us were infinite (see Nashe, The Terrors of the Night, Works, ed. R. B. McKerrow [London, 1910], i, 349.) Such customs could not have been wholly due to sympathetic magic.

33 The first citation (1546) for cub sb. 2 (“A stall, pen … coop or hutch”) is, like the first for lobby, applied to the cells of religious solitaries.—In the OD lobby is tentatively derived from Med. Lat. lobium, which has also given (1290, etc.) lodge (q. v.), along with derivatives in many languages. The Oxford editors note as the primary meaning of the latter, “shelter of foliage.” In this connection should be mentioned Professor Bruce Dickens' discovery that ON lundr, ‘grove, small wood’ appears in English place-names “with the same heathen religious associations that it had in Scandinavia itself”; see A. Mawer and F. M. Stenton, The Place-Names of Bedfordshire and Huntingdonshire (1926), p. 220. Cf. OD s. v. leaf.

34 Cf. Brewer, Dictionary of Phrase and Fable.

35 Dr. E. A. Philippson kindly points out difficulties in Grimm's interpretation of alba as OHG-alp, in the gloss quoted p. 1046. But for Lat. lucius (with vulgo), rendering Engl. luce, cf. Jessop and James, St. William of Norwich (Cambridge, 1896), p. 11.

36 The punning sense was however taken from this word in England from early times: cf. an early twelfth-century manuscript written at Canterbury: “dicebatur Robertas, quia a re nomen habuit, spoliator enim diu fuit et praedo” (Wright, op. cit., p. 354). The scribe is describing his brothers, and goes on: “Tertius nuncupabatur Giroldus, girovagus enim omnibus diebus vitae suae.” Wright cites this with a Latin poem on the reign of Henry III (p. 49: “Competenter per Robert, robbur designato”). The Middle Ages loved puns, and here was probably the source of Roberdesmen, marauders, (Acts 5 Edw. III, etc.) described in the OD as: “Probably from the proper name Roberd Robert, but the allusion is obscure.” Coke (a 1633) derives their name from Robin Hood. The pun was perhaps implied in the use of Robin in his case also. Girovagus also fits an outlaw (cf. n.21 supra).

37 Cf. also a new cit. of hob (freris … And oþer hobbes a-heepe) in Mum and the Sothsegger (EETS, OS, 1936), where also a new meaning “to wander about” is found for hobble (v. gloss.)

38 J. O. Halliwell, Fairy Mythology (London, 1845), pp. ix-xii, quoting (p. xi) Sir Frederic Madden (whom I have not traced—nor has Miss Latham, who seems (p. 224, n.) to ignore the full interest of his tale).

39 For meanings discussed here and elsewhere I am indebted to Miss Katherine Fellows, Professor Rockwell, and Miss Joan Wake.