Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T21:58:41.698Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the study of electoral politics and political behavior in the developing world, India is often considered to be an exemplar of the centrality of contingency in distributive politics, the role of ethnicity in shaping political behavior, and the organizational weakness of political parties. Whereas these axioms have some empirical basis, the massive changes in political practices, the vast variation in political patterns, and the burgeoning literature on subnational dynamics in India mean that such generalizations are not tenable. In this article, we consider research on India that compels us to rethink the contention that India neatly fits the prevailing wisdom in the comparative politics literature. Our objective is to elucidate how the many nuanced insights about Indian politics can improve our understanding of electoral behavior both across and within other countries, allowing us to question core assumptions in theories of comparative politics.

Type
Reflection
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 20 , Issue 1 , March 2022 , pp. 250 - 264
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahuja, Amit. 2019. Mobilizing the Marginalized: Ethnic Parties without Ethnic Movements. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersen, Walter K., and Damle, Sridhar D.. 1987. The Brotherhood in Saffron: The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and Hindu Revivalism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, Siwan, Francois, Patrick, and Kotwal, Ashok. 2015. “Clientelism in Indian Villages.” American Economic Review 105(6): 1780–816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arulampalam, Wiji, Dasgupta, Sugato, Dhillon, Amrita, and Dutta, Bhaskar. 2009. “Electoral Goals and Center-State Transfers.” Journal of Development Economics 88(1): 103–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auerbach, Adam M. 2020. Demanding Development: The Politics of Public Goods Provision in India’s Urban Slums. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Auerbach, Adam M., and Thachil, Tariq. 2018. “How Clients Select Brokers: Competition and Choice in India’s Slums.” American Political Science Review 112(4): 775–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auyero, Javier. 2000. “The Logic of Clientelism in Argentina: An Ethnographic Account.” Latin American Research Review 35(3): 55–81.Google Scholar
Bailey, F. G. 1970. Politics and Social Change: Orissa in 1959. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Banerjee, Mukulika. 2014. Why India Votes? London: Routledge India.Google Scholar
Bardhan, Pranab. 1998. The Political Economy of Development in India. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bardhan, Pranab, Mitra, Sandip, Mookherjee, Dilip, and Sarkar, Abhirup. 2009. “Local Democracy and Clientelism: Implications for Political Stability in Rural West Bengal.” Economic and Political Weekly 44(9): 46–58.Google Scholar
Baruah, Sanjib. 1999. India Against Itself: Assam and the Politics of Nationality. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Berenschot, Ward. 2010. “Everyday Mediation: The Politics of Public Service Delivery in Gujarat, India.” Development and Change 45(1): 883–905.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bielasiak, Jack. 2002. “The Institutionalization of Electoral and Party Systems in Postcommunist States.” Comparative Politics 34(2): 189–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birnir, Johanna. 2006. Ethnicity and Electoral Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Björkman, Lisa. 2014. “‘You Can’t Buy a Vote’: Meanings of Money in a Mumbai Election.” American Ethnologist 41(4): 617–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohlken, Anjali Thomas. 2017. Democratization from Above: The Logic of Local Democracy in the Developing World. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brass, Paul R. 2011. The Production of Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers. 2004. Ethnicity without Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brusco, Valeria, Nazareno, Marcelo, and Stokes, Susan. 2004. “Vote Buying in Argentina.” Latin American Research Review 39(2): 66–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bussell, Jennifer. 2012. Corruption and Reform in India: Public Services in the Digital Age. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bussell, Jennifer. 2019. Clients and Constituents: Political Responsiveness in Patronage Democracies. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calvo, Ernesto, and Murillo, Victoria. 2004. “Who Delivers? Partisan Clients in the Argentine Electoral Market.” American Journal of Political Science 48(4): 742–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calvo, Ernesto, and Murillo, Victoria. 2013. “When Parties Meet Voters.” Comparative Political Studies 46(7): 851–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cammett, Melani, and Issar, Sukriti. 2010. “Bricks and Mortar Clientelism: Sectarianism and the Logics of Welfare Allocation in Lebanon.” World Politics 62(3): 381–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camp, Edwin. 2015. “Cultivating Effective Brokers.” British Journal of Political Science 47(3): 521–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, Elizabeth. 2015. “Ethnic Voting and Accountability in Africa: A Choice Experiment in Uganda.” World Politics 67(2): 353–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2004. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2006. “What Is Ethnic Identity and Does It Matter?” Annual Review of Political Science 9: 397–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 2004. The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Chauchard, Simon. 2016. “Unpacking Ethnic Preferences: Theory and Micro-Level Evidence from North India.” Comparative Political Studies 49(2): 253–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chauchard, Simon 2018. “Electoral Handouts in Mumbai Elections: The Cost of Political Competition.” Asian Survey 58(2): 341–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chhibber, Pradeep, Jensenius, Francesca R., and Suryanarayan, Pavithra. 2014. “Party Organization and Party Proliferation in India.” Party Politics 20(4): 489–505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chhibber, Pradeep, and Verma, Rahul. 2018. Ideology and Identity: The Changing Party Systems of India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chopra, Vir. 1996. Marginal Players in Marginal Assemblies: The Indian MLA. New Delhi: Orient Longman.Google Scholar
Cole, Shawn, Healy, Andrew, and Werker, Eric. 2012. “Do Voters Demand Responsive Governments? Evidence from Indian Disaster Relief.” Journal of Development Economics 97(2): 167–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corbridge, Stuart, Williams, Glyn, Srivastava, Manoj, and Veron, Rene. 2005. Seeing the State. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dasgupta, Aditya. 2017. “Technological Change and Political Turnover: The Democratizing Effects of the Green Revolution in India.” American Political Science Review 112(4): 918–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Desai, Manali. 2001. “Party Formation, Political Power, and the Capacity for Reform: Comparing Left Parties in Kerala and West Bengal, India.” Social Forces 80(1): 37–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devasher, Madhavi. 2014. “Masjid vs. Mandal: Ethnic and Cross-Ethnic Voting in India.” PhD dissertation, Department of Political Science, Yale University, New Haven, CT.Google Scholar
Diaz-Cayeros, Alberto, Estévez, Federico, and Magaloni, Beatriz. 2016. The Political Logic of Poverty Relief: Electoral Strategies and Social Policy in Mexico. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixit, Avinash, and Londregan, John. 1996. “The Determinants of Success of Special Interests in Redistributive Politics.” Journal of Politics 58(4): 1132–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunning, Thad, and Nilekani, Janhavi. 2013. “Ethnic Quotas and Political Mobilization: Caste, Parties, and Distribution in Indian Village Councils.” American Political Science Review 107(1): 35–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duverger, Maurice. 1954 [1917]. Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State. London: Methuen; New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ejdemyr, Simon, Kramon, Eric, and Robinson, Amanda Lea. 2017. “Segregation, Ethnic Favoritism, and the Strategic Targeting of Local Public Goods.” Comparative Political Studies 51(9): 1111–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erdman, Howard L. 1967. The Swatantra Party and Indian Conservatism. London: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Farooqui, Adnan, and Sridharan, E.. 2014. “Incumbency, Internal Processes and Renomination in Indian Parties.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 52(1): 78–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearon, James D. 1999. “Why Ethnic Politics and ‘Pork’ Tend to Go Together.” Presented at the SSRC-MacArthur sponsored Conference on “Ethnic Politics and Democratic Stability,” University of Chicago, May 21–23.Google Scholar
Ferree, Karen E. 2006. “Explaining South Africa’s Racial Census.” Journal of Politics 68(4): 803–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fickett, Lewis P. Jr. 1976. The Major Socialist Parties of India: A Study of Leftist Fragmentation. Syracuse, NY: Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Gans-Morse, Jordan, Mazzuca, Sebastian, and Nichter, Simeon. 2014. “Varieties of Clientelism: Machine Politics during Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 58(2): 415–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gao, Eleanor. 2016. “Tribal Mobilization, Fragmented Groups, and Public Goods Provision in Jordan.” Comparative Political Studies 49(10): 1372–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gay, Robert. 1994. Popular Organization and Democracy in Rio de Janeiro. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Golden, Miriam, and Min, Brian. 2013. “Distributive Politics around the World.” Annual Review of Political Science 16: 73–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, Bruce. 1990. Hindu Nationalism and Indian Politics: The Origins and Development of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gupta, Akhil. 1995. “Blurred Boundaries.” American Ethnologist 22(2): 375–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gupta, Poonam, and Panagariya, Arvind. 2014. “Growth and Election Outcomes in a Developing Country.” Economics & Politics 26(2): 332–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, Thomas Blom. 2001. Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Harding, Robin. 2015. “Attribution and Accountability: Voting for Roads in Ghana.” World Politics 67(4): 656–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harriss, John. 2005. “Political Participation, Representation, and the Urban Poor.” Economic and Political Weekly 40(11): 1041–54.Google Scholar
Heath, Oliver. 2005. “Party Systems, Political Cleavages and Electoral Volatility in India: A State-Wise Analysis, 1998–1999.” Electoral Studies 24(2): 177–99.Google Scholar
Heath, Oliver, Verniers, Gilles, and Kumar, Sanjay. 2015. “Do Muslim Voters Prefer Muslim Candidates? Co-religiosity and Voting Behaviour in India.” Electoral Studies 38(6): 10–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herring, Ronald. 1999. “Embedded Particularism: India’s Failed Developmental State.” In The Developmental State, ed. Woo-Cummings, Meredith, 306–334. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Herring, Ronald. 2013. “Class Politics in India: Euphemization, Identity and Power.” In Routledge Handbook of Indian Politics, ed., Kohli, Atul and Singh, Prerna, 129–143. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hicken, Allen. 2009. Building Party Systems in Developing Democracies. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hicken, Allen. 2011. “Clientelism.” Annual Review of Political Science 14: 289–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hicken, Allen, and Kuhonta, Erik Martinez. 2011. “Shadows from the Past: Party System Institutionalization in Asia.” Comparative Political Studies 44(5): 572–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holland, Alisha, and Palmer-Rubin, Brian. 2015. “Beyond the Machine.” Comparative Political Studies 48(9): 1186–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horowitz, Donald L. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Huber, John D. 2017. Exclusion by Elections. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huber, John D., and Suryanarayan, Pavithra. 2016. “Ethnic Inequality and the Ethnification of Political Parties.” World Politics 68(1): 149–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffrelot, Christophe. 2000. “The Rise of the Other Backward Classes in the Hindi Belt.” Journal of Asian Studies 59(1): 86–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffrelot, Christophe. 2003. India’s Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Jensenius, Francesca R. 2017. Social Justice through Inclusion: The Consequences of Electoral Quotas in India. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jha, Prashant. 2017. How the BJP Wins. New Delhi: Juggernaut.Google Scholar
Jha, Saumitra, Rao, Vijayendra, and Woolcock, Michael. 2007. “Governance in the Gullies.” World Development 35(2): 230–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamath, P.M. 1985. “Politics of Defection in India in the 1980’s.” Asian Survey 25(10): 1039–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kashyap, Subhash C. 1970. “The Politics of Defection: The Changing Contours of the Political Power Structure in State Politics in India.” Asian Survey 10(3): 195–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keefer, Philip and Khemani, Stuti. 2004. “Why Do the Poor Receive Poor Services?” Economic and Political Weekly 39(9): 935–43.Google Scholar
Kitschelt, Herbert, and Wilkinson, Steven I., ed. 2007. Patrons, Clients and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohli, Atul. 1990. Democracy and Discontent: India’s Growing Crisis of Governability. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kothari, Rajni. 1964. “The Congress ‘System’ in India.” Asian Survey 4(12): 1161–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kothari, Rajni, ed. 1970. Caste in Indian Politics. New Delhi: Orient Longman.Google Scholar
Kothari, Rajni, and Maru, Rushikesh. 1970. “Federating for Political Interests: The Kshatrias of Gujarat.” In Caste in Indian Politics, ed. Kothari, Rajni, 70–101. New Delhi: Orient Longman.Google Scholar
Kramon, Eric. 2016. “Electoral Handouts as Information: Explaining Unmonitored Vote Buying.” World Politics 68(3): 454–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krishna, Anirudh. 2002. Active Social Capital. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krueger, Anne. 1974. “The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society.” American Economic Review 64(3): 291–303.Google Scholar
Kruks-Wisner, Gabrielle. 2018. Claiming the State: Active Citizenship and Social Welfare in Rural India. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawson, Chappell, and Greene, Kenneth. 2014. “Making Clientelism Work: How Norms of Reciprocity Increase Voter Compliance.” Comparative Politics 47(1): 61–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Alexander. 2019. “The Origins of Ethnic Activism.” Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 4(1): 148–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupu, Noam, and Riedl, Rachel Beatty. 2013. “Political Parties and Uncertainty in Developing Democracies.” Comparative Political Studies 46(1): 1339–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madrid, Raúl. 2012. The Rise of Ethnic Politics in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz. 2008. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and Its Demise in Mexico. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mainwaring, Scott, and Scully, Timothy. 1995. Building Democratic Institutions: Party Systems in Latin America. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Mainwaring, Scott, and Torcal, Mariano. 2006. “Party System Institutionalization and Party System Theory after the Third Wave of Democratization.” In Handbook of Party Politics, ed. Katz, Richard S. and Crotty, William J., 204–227. London: Sage Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manor, James. 2000. “Small-Time Fixers in India’s States.” Asian Survey 40(5): 816–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manor, James. 2005. “In Part a Myth: The BJP’s Organizational Strength.” In Coalition Politics and Hindu Nationalism, ed. Adeney, Katherine and Saez, Lawrence, 55–74. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mares, Isabela, and Young, Lauren. 2019. Conditionality and Coercion: Electoral Clientelism in Eastern Europe. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michelutti, Lucia. 2008. The Vernacularisation of Democracy: Politics, Caste, and Religion in India. New Delhi: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mitra, Subrata. 2002. Power, Protest, and Participation: Local Elites and the Politics of Development in India. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, Paula. 2014. “An Informational Theory of Campaign Clientelism: The Case of Peru.” Comparative Politics 47(1): 79–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nathan, Noah. 2019. “Local Ethnic Geography, Expectations of Favoritism, and Voting in Urban Ghana.” Comparative Political Studies 49(14): 1896–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nellis, Gareth, Weaver, Michael, and Rosenzweig, Steven. 2016. “Do Parties Matter for Ethnic Violence? Evidence from India.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 11(3): 249–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichter, Simeon. 2008. “Vote Buying or Turnout Buying?” American Political Science Review 102(1): 19–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichter, Simeon. 2018. Votes for Survival. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Novaes, Lucas M. 2018. “Disloyal Brokers and Weak Parties.” American Journal of Political Science 62(1): 84–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oldenburg, Philip. 1987. “Middlemen in Third-World Corruption.” World Politics 39(4): 508–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pai, Sudha. 2002. Dalit Assertion and the Unfinished Democratic Revolution: The Bahujan Samaj Party in Uttar Pradesh. New Delhi: Sage Publications India.Google Scholar
Palshikar, Suhas, Kumar, Sanjay, and Lodha, Sanjay, eds. 2017. Electoral Politics in India: The Resurgence of the Bharatiya Janata Party. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pandey, Gyanendra, ed. 1993. Hindus and Others: The Question of Identity in India Today. New Delhi: Viking.Google Scholar
Piliavsky, Anastasia. 2014. Patronage as Politics in South Asia. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porto, Alberto, and Sanguinetti, Pablo. 2001. “Political Determinants of Intergovernmental Grants: Evidence from Argentina.” Economics & Politics 13(3): 237–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, Daniel N. 2005. Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Power, Eleanor A., and Ready, Elspeth. 2018. “Building Bigness: Reputation, Prominence, and Social Capital in Rural South India.” American Anthropologist 120(3): 444–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Randall, V., and Svåsand, L.. 2002. “Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Africa.” Democratization 9(3): 30–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ray, Talton. 1969. Politics of the Barrios of Venezuela. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Reddy, G. Ram, and Haragopal, G.. 1985. “The Pyraveekar.” Asian Survey 25(11): 1148–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riedl, Rachel Beatty. 2014. Authoritarian Origins of Democratic Party Systems in Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roy, Ramashray. 1965. “Congress Party in Bihar.” PhD dissertation, Department of Politics, University of California, Berkeley, CA.Google Scholar
Rudolph, Lloyd I., and Rudolph, Susanne H.. 1960. “The Political Role of India’s Caste Associations.” Pacific Affairs 33(1): 5–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudolph, Lloyd I., and Rudolph, Susanne H.. 1987. In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Rueda, Miguel. 2016. “Small Aggregates, Big Manipulation.” American Journal of Political Science 61(1): 163–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruparelia, Sanjay. 2015. Divided We Govern: Coalition Politics in Modern India. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruud, Arild Engelsen. 1994. “Land and Power: The Marxist Conquest of Rural Bengal.” Modern Asian Studies 28(2): 357–80.Google Scholar
Samuels, David 1999. “Incentives to Cultivate a Party Vote in Candidate-Centric Electoral Systems.” Comparative Political Studies 32(4): 487–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffer, Frederic Charles, ed. 2007. Elections for Sale: The Causes and Consequences of Vote Buying. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Schneider, Mark. 2019. “Do Local Leaders Know Their Voters? A Test of Guessability in India.” Electoral Studies 61: 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Mark. 2020. “The Discerning Voter: Party–Voter Linkages and Local Distribution Under Multilevel Governance.” Party Politics 26(2): 191–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Mark, and Sircar, Neelanjan. 2020. “Does Local Democracy Serve the Poor? Identifying the Distributive Preferences of Village Politicians in India.” Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Shah, A.M. 2006. The Grassroots of Democracy: Field Studies of Indian Elections. New Delhi: Permanent Black.Google Scholar
Shah, Ghanshyam, ed. 2004. Caste and Democratic Politics in India. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.Google Scholar
Shayo, Moses. 2009. “A Model of Social Identity with an Application to Political Economy.” American Political Science Review 103(2): 147–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sircar, Neelanjan. 2018. “Money in Elections: The Role of Personal Wealth in Election Outcomes.” In Cost of Democracy: Political Finance in India, ed. Kapur, Devesh and Vaishnav, Milan, 36–73. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slater, Dan. 2010. Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Benjamin. 2005. “Life of the Party: The Origins of Regime Breakdown and Persistence under Single-Party Rule.” World Politics 57(3): 421–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Srinivas, M. N. 1955. India’s Villages. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.Google Scholar
Stokes, Susan. 2005. “Perverse Accountability.” American Political Science Review 99(3): 315–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes, Susan C., Dunning, Thad, Nazareno, Marcelo, and Brusco, Valeria. 2013. Brokers, Voters, and Clientelism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suryanarayan, Pavithra. 2019. “When Do the Poor Vote for the Right Wing and Why: Status Hierarchy and Vote Choice in the Indian States.” Comparative Political Studies 52(2): 209–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szwarcberg, Mariela. 2015. Mobilizing Poor Voters: Machine Politics, Clientelism, and Social Networks in Argentina. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, and Turner, John C.. 1986. “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior.” In Psychology of Intergroup Relations, ed. Austin, William G. and Worchel, Stephen, 7–24. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar
Tavits, Margit. 2005. “The Development of Stable Party Support: Electoral Dynamics in Post‐Communist Europe.” American Journal of Political Science 49(2): 283–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tavits, Margit. 2013. Post-Communist Democracies and Party Organization. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thachil, Tariq. 2014. Elite Parties, Poor Voters: How Social Services Win Votes in India. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsai, Lily L. 2007. Accountability Without Democracy: Solidary Groups and Public Goods Provision in Rural China. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uppal, Yogesh. 2009. “The Disadvantaged Incumbents: Estimating incumbency Effects in Indian State Legislatures.” Public Choice 138(1/2): 9–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaishnav, Milan. 2017. “Ethnic Identifiability in India: Evidence from a Voter Survey.” Asian Survey 57(4): 738–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaishnav, Milan, and Swanson, Reedy. 2015. “Does Good Economics Make for Good Politics? Evidence from Indian States.” India Review 14(3): 279–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Cott, Donna Lee. 2007. From Movements to Parties in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Varshney, Ashutosh. 2002. Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Varshney, Ashutosh. 2007. “Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict.” In The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics, ed. Boix, Carles and Stokes, Susan C., 274–294. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Verma, Rahul. 2012. “What Determines Electoral Outcomes in India? Caste, Class, or Voters’ Satisfaction with Government Performance?” Asian Survey 52(2): 270–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wantchekon, Leonard. 2003. “Clientelism and Voting Behavior: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Benin.” World Politics 55(3): 399–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiner, Myron. 1967. Party Building in a New Nation: The Indian National Congress. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Weiner, Myron. 2001. “The Struggle for Equality: Caste in Indian Politics.” In The Success of India’s Democracy, ed. Kohli, Atul, 193–225. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, Steven. 2004. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williamson, Oliver. 1971. “The Vertical Integration of Production.” American Economic Review 61(2): 112–23.Google Scholar
Wyatt, Andrew. 2009. Party System Change in South India: Political Entrepreneurs, Patterns and Processes. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yadav, Yogendra. 1999. “Electoral Parties in the Time of Change.” Economic and Political Weekly 34(34/35): 2393–99.Google Scholar
Ziegfeld, Adam. 2016. Why Regional Parties? Clientelism, Elites, and the Indian Party System. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar