Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-gb8f7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T20:56:11.824Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

From Pathology to ‘Born Perfect’: Science, Law, and Citizenship in American LGBTQ+ Advocacy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 November 2020

Joanna Wuest Open the ORCID record for Joanna Wuest [Opens in a new window]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In recent years, there has been an explosion of legislative and litigation campaigns to ban conversion therapy for sexual orientation and gender identity. In championing such bans, the American LGBTQ+ advocacy movement has incorporated its massive network of scientific and medical allies into legal arguments, legislative testimonies, educational materials, and political cultural discourse more generally. By linking these recent campaigns to the long history of scientific influence in LGBTQ+ politics, I demonstrate how biomedical and mental health institutions and ideas have become foundational to the character of American LGBTQ+ advocacy. I do so by marrying theories and methodological approaches to studying political identity and social movements, American political development, and public opinion to those in Science and Technology Studies (STS) and biopolitical citizenship studies. This joint perspective reveals both the power of scientific authority as well as the political, legal, and normative pitfalls that attend certain biomedical articulations of identity and personhood, legal rights claims, and demands for full and equal citizenship. This approach demonstrates how scholars might conceptualize and study the role of extra-political institutions and ideas that become constitutive components of minority rights coalitions.

Type
Article
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 19 , Issue 3 , September 2021 , pp. 838 - 853
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

She would like to thank Patrick Grzanka, Greta LaFleur, Briana Last, Natalie Prizel, Clifford Rosky, Carly Regina, Rogers M. Smith, and the participants at the Princeton University Bodies of Knowledge Working Group and the 2020 meetings of the Law and Society Association and the Western Political Science Association.

References

Adler, Libby. 2018. Gay Priori: A Queer Critical Legal Studies Approach to Law Reform. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Alliance Defending Freedom (ADF). 2018. “Legal Analysis of California AB 2943.” Retrieved March 18, 2019 (https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B9njBaZTrCfSMFJfRGMzX2ZQeFh0R0U3bFVMS2ZYWUl1M2VF/view).Google Scholar
Alliance for Therapeutic Choice and Scientific Integrity Training Institute. N.d. “Our Mission: Because Values Matter.” Retrieved March 25, 2019 (https://www.therapeuticchoice.com/our-mission).Google Scholar
Alliance for Therapeutic Choice and Scientific Integrity Training Institute. 2012. “Alliance Statement on Sexual Orientation Change.” Retrieved March 25, 2019 (https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/ec16e9_1d6108cfa05d4a73921e0d0292c0bc91.pdf).Google Scholar
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). 2019. “About the AAP.” Retrieved March 12, 2019 (https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/Pages/About-the-AAP.aspx).Google Scholar
American College of Pediatricians (ACP). 2017. “Homosexual Parenting: Is It Time for Change?” Retrieved March 21, 2019 (https://www.acpeds.org/the-college-speaks/position-statements/parenting-issues/homosexual-parenting-is-it-time-for-change).Google Scholar
American Psychoanalytic Association. 2012. “Position Statement on Attempts to Change Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, or Gender Expression.” Retrieved August 24, 2020 (https://apsa.org/content/2012-position-statement-attempts-change-sexual-orientation-gender-identity-or-gender).Google Scholar
American Psychological Association. 2009. “Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts.” Retrieved February 20, 2020 (https://www.apa.org/about/policy/sexual-orientation).Google Scholar
American Psychological Association. Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation. 2009. Report of the American Psychological Association Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. 2018. “Position Statement on Conversion Therapy and LGBTQ Patients.” Retrieved February 20, 2020 (https://www.psychiatry.org/newsroom/news-releases/apa-reiterates-strong-opposition-to-conversion-therapy).Google Scholar
Association of American Physicians and Surgeons. 2016. “AAPS News July 2016—Discrimination.” Retrieved March 21, 2019 (https://aapsonline.org/aaps-news-july-2016-discrimination/).Google Scholar
Association of American Physicians and Surgeons 2018. “California Proposes Bills to Outlaw Self-Determination in Medical Therapy. Retrieved March 21, 2019 (https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B9njBaZTrCfSaVl5cXJ6SUNsdTdiQXRRdVFvMTRzSHF5bEJj/view).Google Scholar
Bajko, Matthew S. 2019. “Low Rules Out Religious Exemption in Conversion Therapy Ban.” Bay Area Reporter, January 11. Retrieved March 19, 2019 (https://www.ebar.com/news/latest_news/270745).Google Scholar
Bayer, Ronald. 1981. Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Beckstead, A. Lee. 2012. “Can We Change Sexual Orientation?” Archives of Sexual Behavior 41(1): 122-34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bersani, Leo. 1996. Homos. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliss, Catherine. 2018. Social by Nature: The Promise and Perils of Sociogenomics. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosman, Julia, and Smith, Mitch. 2020. “Doctors Could Face Criminal Charges for Treating Transgender Teens.” New York Times, January 27. Retrieved July 29, 2020 (https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/27/us/south-dakota-transgender.html).Google Scholar
Burt, Greg. 2018. “New CA Bill Outlaws Helping Anyone with Unwanted Same-Sex Desires or Gender Confusion.” Retrieved March 18, 2019 (https://californiafamily.org/2018/new-ca-bill-outlaws-helping-anyone-with-unwanted-same-sex-desires-or-gender-confusion/).Google Scholar
California 2943, “AB Unlawful Business Practices: Sexual Orientation Change Efforts.” Introduced February 16, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2019 (https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180AB2943)Google Scholar
California Family Council. 2018. “AB 2943.” Retrieved March 18, 2019 (https://californiafamily.org/oppose-ca-ab-2943-ab-1779-and-ab-2119-reference-materials/).Google Scholar
Canaday, Margot. 2009. The Straight State: Sexuality and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, Joe. 2018. “California’s Latest Threat to Religious Liberty and Free Speech.” Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission, April 24. Retrieved March 20, 2019 (https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/californias-latest-threat-to-religious-liberty-and-free-speech).Google Scholar
Catholic Church. The Catechism of the Catholic Church. Retrieved February 20, 2020 (https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/P85.HTM).Google Scholar
Child Abuse Prevention Treatment Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-235).Google Scholar
Congregation for Catholic Education. 2019. “Male and Female He Created Them: Toward a Path of Dialogue on the Question of Gender Identity in Catholic Education.” Retrieved February 20, 2020 (http://www.educatio.va/content/dam/cec/Documenti/19_0997_INGLESE.pdf).Google Scholar
Cooper, Melinda. 2008. Life as Surplus: Biotechnology and Capitalism in the Neoliberal Era. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Council for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood. 2017. “Nashville Statement.” Retrieved March 20, 2019 (https://cbmw.org/nashville-statement/).Google Scholar
Das, Geeti. 2016. “Mostly Normal: American Psychiatric Taxonomy, Sexuality, and Neoliberal Mechanisms of Exclusion.” Sexuality Research and Social Policy 13(4): 390-401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, Lisa M. 2008. Sexual Fluidity: Understanding Women’s Love and Desire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Diamond, Lisa M., and Rosky, Clifford J.. 2016. “Scrutinizing Immutability: Research on Sexual Orientation and U.S. Legal Advocacy for Sexual Minorities.” Journal of Sex Research 53(4-5): 363–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drescher, Jack. 2008. “A History of Homosexuality and Organized Psychoanalysis.” Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry. 36(3): 443-60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eckholm, Erik. 2012. “Clashing Rulings Complicate Path of Gay ‘Conversion Therapy’ Law.” New York Times, December 4. Retrieved March 13, 2019 (https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/05/us/judge-blocks-california-conversion-therapies-law.html?).Google Scholar
Egan, Patrick, J. 2012. “Group Cohesion without Group Mobilization: The Case of Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals.” British Journal of Political Science 42(3): 597-616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engel, Stephen. 2016. Fragmented Citizenship: The Changing Landscape of Gay and Lesbian Lives. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Epstein, Steven. 1987. “Gay Politics, Ethnic Identity: The Limits of Social Construction.” Socialist Review 93-94: 9-54.Google Scholar
Epstein, Steven 2007. Inclusion: The Politics of Difference in Medical Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Equality California. 2018. “AB 2943.” Retrieved July 21, 2020 (https://www.eqca.org/ab2943/).Google Scholar
Flynn, J.D. 2018. “Could a California Bill Ban Christian Teaching on Homosexuality?” Catholic News Agency, April 22. Retrieved March 18, 2019 (https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/could-a-california-bill-ban-christian-teaching-on-homosexuality-59038).Google Scholar
Foucault, Michael. 1990. The History of Sexuality, Volume I, Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Frances, Don. 2012. “Bill by Torrance Lawmaker Ted Lieu Banning ‘Conversion’ of Gay Teens clears Committee.” KKPC, May, 9. Retrieved March 13, 2019 (https://www.scpr.org/blogs/news/2012/05/09/6031/bill-torrance-lawmaker-ted-lieu-banning-conversion/).Google Scholar
Garretson, Jeremiah, and Suhay, Elizabeth. 2016. “Scientific Communication about Biological Influences on Homosexuality and the Politics of Gay Rights.” Political Research Quarterly 6(1): 17–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, Marie-Amélie. 2016. “The Custody Crucible: The Development of Scientific Authority about Gay and Lesbian Parents.” Law and History Review 34(2): 487-529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosh, Cyril. 2018. “Marriage Equality and the Injunction to Assimilate: Romantic Love, Children, Monogamy, and Parenting in Obergefell v. Hodges.” Polity 50(2): 275–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, Emily R. 2014. “Beyond Immutability: Sexuality and Constitute Choice.” Review of Politics 76(1): 93–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graves, Karen L. 2009. And They Were Wonderful Teachers: Florida’s Purge of Gay and Lesbian Teachers. Champaign: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Green, Amy E., Price-Feeney, Myeshia, Dorison, Samuel H., and Pick, Casey J.. 2020. “Self-Reported Conversion Efforts and Suicidality Among US LGBTQ Youths and Young Adults, 2018.” American Journal of Public Health 110(8): 1221-27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagel, Nina. 2017. “Alternative Authenticities: Thinking Transgender without Essence.” Theory & Event 20(3): 599-628.Google Scholar
Haider-Markel, Donald P., and Joslyn, Mark R. 2008. “Beliefs about the Origins of Homosexuality and Support for Gay Rights: An Empirical Test of Attribution Theory.” Public Opinion Quarterly 72(2): 291–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haider-Markel, Donald P., and Joslyn, Mark R. 2013. “Politicizing biology: Social Movements, Parties, and the Case of Homosexuality.” Social Science Journal 50(4): 603-15Google Scholar
Halley, Janet. 1994. “Sexual Orientation and the Politics of Biology: A Critique of the Argument from Immutability.” Stanford Law Review 46(3): 503-68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Happe, Kelly E., Johnson, Jenell, and Levina, Marina. 2018. Biocitizenship: The Politics of Bodies, Governance, and Power. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hindman, Matthew D. 2018. Political Advocacy and Its Interested Citizens: Neoliberalism, Postpluralism, and LGBT Organizations. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Human Rights Campaign. 2020. “The Lies and Dangers of Efforts to Change Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity.” Retrieved February 20, 2020 (https://www.hrc.org/resources/the-lies-and-dangers-of-reparative-therapy).Google Scholar
Human Rights Campaign, National Center for Lesbian Rights, and the Southern Poverty Law Center v. People Can Change, Inc. February 24, 2016. “Complaint for Action to Stop False, Deceptive Advertising and Other Business Practices.” United States Federal Trade Commission, Retrieved July 19, 2020 (http://www.nclrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/FTC-Conversion-Therapy-Complaint.pdf).Google Scholar
Jasanoff, Sheila, ed. 2004. States of Knowledge: The Co-Production of Science and the Social Order. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jordan-Young, Rebecca. 2011. Brain Storm: The Flaws in the Science of Sex Differences. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keen, Lisa, and Goldberg, Suzanne B.. 2000. Strangers to the Law: Gay People on Trial. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Knauer, Nancy J. 2003. “Science, Identity, and the Construction of the Gay Political Narrative.” Law & Sexuality 12: 1-87. (https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=W0mkrs0AAAAJ&hl=en#d=gs_md_cita-d&u=%2Fcitations%3Fview_op%3Dview_citation%26hl%3Den%26user%3DW0mkrs0AAAAJ%26citation_for_view%3DW0mkrs0AAAAJ%3AUeHWp8X0CEIC%26tzom%3D240).Google Scholar
Legal, Lambda. 2012. “Lambda Legal Applauds Law Banning ‘Reparative Therapy’ for California Minors.” Retrieved March 13, 2019 (https://www.lambdalegal.org/news/ca_2012_lambda-legal-applauds-law).Google Scholar
Lancaster, Roger. 2003. The Trouble with Nature: Sex in Science and Pop Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeVay, Simon. 2011. Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, Abram J. 2016. “We Are Certain of Our Own Insanity:" Antipsychiatry and the Gay Liberation Movement, 1968–1980.” Journal of the History of Sexuality, 25(1): 83-113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Gregory B. 2009. “Does Believing Homosexuality Is Innate Increase Support for Gay Rights?” Policy Studies Journal 37(4): 669-93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewontin, Richard C. 1993. Biology as Ideology: The Doctrine of DNA. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.Google Scholar
Leys, Ruth. 2000. Trauma: A Genealogy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez, Robert O. 2018. “Resolution on Ministry and Counseling to Lead People from Homosexuality to Heterosexuality.” Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved March 20, 2019 (https://www.massresistance.org/docs/gen3/18b/MR-TX-SBC-Resolution/images/Lopez-SBC-Resolution.pdf).Google Scholar
Los Angeles Times. 2018. “Target ‘Gay Conversion Therapy,’ Not Religion.” Los Angeles Times, May 7. Editorial Board.Google Scholar
Massachusetts Catholic Conference. 2019 “Conversion Therapy.” Retrieved February 20, 2020 (https://www.macatholic.org/news-article/conversion-therapy).Google Scholar
McGreevy, Patrick. 2012. “Gov. Jerry Brown Bans Gay-to-Straight Therapy for Minors.” Los Angeles Times, September 30. Retrieved March 13, 2019 (https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/california-politics/2012/09/governor-jerry-brown-gay-therapy-minors.html).Google Scholar
McNally, Richard J. 2018. “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder as a Growth Industry: Comment on Asmundson and Asmundson.” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 56:14-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meadow, Tey. 2018. Trans Kids: Being Gendered in the Twenty-First Century. Oakland: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendoza, Austin. 2019. “Lieu Ready for Another Attempt at Federal Ban on ‘Conversion Therapy’.” Los Angeles Blade, June 12. Retrieved July 29, 2020 (https://www.losangelesblade.com/2019/06/12/lieu-ready-for-another-attempt-at-federal-ban-on-conversion-therapy/).Google Scholar
Minton, Henry L. 2002. Departing from Deviance: A History of Homosexual Rights and Emancipatory Science in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Moynihan, Ray. 2016. “Caution! Diagnosis Creep.” Australian Prescriber 39(2): 30-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, Charles. 2020. Human Diversity: The Biology of Gender, Race, and Class. New York: Twelve Books.Google Scholar
National Gay Task Force. 1979. “Expert Testimony in Child Custody Cases, Collection 7301, Box 153, Folder 17, The National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Records, 1973–2000, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.Google Scholar
National Center for Lesbian Rights. 2019. “Born Perfect: The Campaign to End Conversion Therapy.” Retrieved March 11, 2019 (http://www.nclrights.org/our-work/bornperfect/).Google Scholar
Panofsky, Aaron. 2014. Misbehaving Science: Controversy and Development of Behavior Genetics. Chicago: University of Chicago.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petryna, Adriana. 2002. Life Exposed: Biological Citizens after Chernobyl. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Proctor, Andrew. 2019. “Coming Out to Vote: LGBT Mobilization in the Two-Party System, 1976–2016.” PhD dissertation. Princeton University.Google Scholar
Reich, David. 2018. Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Reintegrative Therapy Association. 2018. “About Us” and “The Science.” Retrieved March 25, 2019 (https://www.reintegrativetherapy.com/reintegrative-therapy/).Google Scholar
Richardson, Sarah S., and Stevens, Hallam, eds. 2015. Postgenomics: Perspectives on Biology after the Genome. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosario, Vernon A. 2003. “An Interview with Judd Marmor, MD.” Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy 7(4): 23-34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Nikolas. 2006. The Politics of Life Itself: Biomedicine, Power, and Subjectivity in the Twenty-First Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sadjadi, Sahar. 2019. “Deep in the Brian: Identity and Authenticity in Pediatric Gender Transition.” Cultural Anthropology 34(1): 103-29. doi: 10.14506/ca34.1.10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saini, Angela. 2019. Superior: The Return of Race Science. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, Stephen P., Smith, Kevin B., and Hibbing, John R.. 2018. “Genetic Attributions: Sign of Intolerance or Acceptance?” Journal of Politics 80(2): 1023-27. doi: 10.1086/696860CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Short, Robbie. June 24, 2018. “Emotional Fight Over Conversion Therapy: Should California Limit Services Meant to Turn Gay People Straight?” CALmatters. Retrieved March 18, 2019 (https://calmatters.org/articles/gay-conversion-therapy-california-bill/).Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 2003. Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Rogers M. 2015. Political Peoplehood: The Roles of Values, Ideas, and Identities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Southern Poverty Law Center. 2015. “New Jersey Excludes Key ‘Conversion’ Therapy Experts in SPLC Consumer Fraud Case.” Retrieved March 25, 2019 (http://www.splcenter.org/news/2015/02/05/new-jersey-judge-excludes-key-%E2%80%98conversion%E2%80%99-therapy-experts-splc-consumer-fraud-case).Google Scholar
Spiegel, Alexis. 2002. “81 Words.” This American Life, January 18. Retrieved July 27, 2017 (https://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/204/81-words).Google Scholar
Sprigg, Peter. 2018. “California’s Effort to Ban ‘Conversion Therapy’ Failed. Here’s a Better Path We Can All Agree On.” Family Research Council. Retrieved March 19, 2019 (https://www.frc.org/op-eds/californias-effort-to-ban-conversion-therapy-failed-heres-a-better-path-we-can-all-agree-on).Google Scholar
Stein, Edward. 1999. The Mismeasure of Desire: The Science, Theory, and Ethics of Sexual Orientation. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Strolovitch, Dara. 2007. Affirmative Advocacy: Race, Class, and Gender in Interest Group Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suhay, Elizabeth, and Jayaratne, Toby Epstein. 2013. “Does Biology Justify Ideology? The Politics of Genetic Attribution.” Public Opinion Quarterly 77(2): 497–521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suhay, Elizabeth, and Garretson, Jeremiah. 2018. “Science, Sexuality, and Civil Rights: Does Information on the Causes of Sexual Orientation Change Attitudes?” Journal of Politics 80(2): 692-96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunder Rajan, Kaushik. 2006. Biocapital: The Constitution of Postgenomic Life. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terry, Jennifer. 1999. An American Obsession: Science, Medicine, and Homosexuality in Modern Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Therapeutic Fraud Prevention Act, 116th Congress: H.R. 3570; S. 2008 (2019).Google Scholar
Thompson, Don. 2018. “California Gay Conversion Therapy Bill Dropped.” VC Star, August 31. Retrieved March 19, 2019 (https://www.vcstar.com/story/news/2018/08/31/california-gay-conversion-therapy-bill-dropped/1163752002/).Google Scholar
Trevor Project, The. 2019. “50 Bills 50 States: About Our Campaign.” Retrieved March 11, 2019 (https://www.thetrevorproject.org/get-involved/trevor-advocacy/50-bills-50-states/about-our-campaign/#sm.0001pmi1c4mgpdxsqhj1i7dy2ozox).Google Scholar
Truth Wins Out. 2019. “Medical Professionals.” Retrieved February 20, 2020) (https://truthwinsout.org/category/videos/medical-professionals/).Google Scholar
Turban, Jack L., Beckwith, Noor, Reisner, Sari L.. 2020. “Association between Recalled Exposure to Gender Identity Conversion Efforts and Psychological Distress and Suicide Attempts among Transgender Adults.” JAMA Psychiatry 77(1): 68-76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valelly, Richard. 2012. “LGBT Politics and American Political Development.” Annual Review of Political Science 15:313-32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Mol, Andre. 2018. “Unlawful and Unnecessary—Oppose AB 1779 & AB 2943.” American College of Pediatricians.Google Scholar
Waidzunas, Tom. 2015. The Straight Line: How the Fringe Science of Ex-Gay Therapy Reoriented Sexuality. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walters, Suzanna. 2014. The Tolerance Trap: How God, Genes, and Good Intentions Are Sabotaging Gay Equality. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Whisman, Vera. 1995. Queer by Choice: Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Politics of Identity. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Williams Institute. 2019. “Conversion Therapy and LGBT Youth.” Retrieved July 21, 2020 (https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/conversion-therapy-and-lgbt-youth/).Google Scholar
Wuest, Jo. 2019. “The Scientific Gaze in American Transgender Politics: Contesting the Meanings of Sex, Gender, and Gender Identity in the Bathroom Rights Cases.” Politics & Gender 15(2): 336-60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziegler, Mary. 2016. “Perceiving Orientation: Defining Sexuality after Obergefell.” Duke Journal of Gender Law and Policy 23(223): 224-61.Google Scholar