Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T17:47:30.680Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Beyond Patronage: Violent Struggle, Ruling Party Cohesion, and Authoritarian Durability

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 December 2012

Steven R. Levitsky  and
Lucan A. Way
Steven R. Levitsky
Affiliation:
Harvard University
Lucan A. Way
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We explore the sources of durability of party-based authoritarian regimes in the face of crisis. Recent scholarship on authoritarianism suggests that ruling parties enhance elite cohesion—and consequently, regime durability—by providing institutionalized access the spoils of power. We argue, by contrast, that while elite access to power and spoils may ensure elite cooperation during normal times, it often fails to do so during crises. Instead, the identities, norms, and organizational structures forged during periods of sustained, violent, and ideologically-driven conflict are a critical source of cohesion—and durability—in party-based authoritarian regimes. Origins in violent conflict raise the cost of defection and provide leaders with additional (non-material) resources that can be critical to maintaining unity and discipline, even when a crisis threatens the party's hold on power. Hence, where ruling parties combine mechanisms of patronage distribution with the strong identities, solidarity ties, and discipline generated by violent origins, regimes should be most durable.

We apply this argument to four party-based competitive authoritarian regimes in post-Cold War Africa: Kenya, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In each of these cases, an established single- or dominant-party regime faced heightened international pressure, economic crisis, and a strong opposition challenge after 1990. Yet whereas ruling parties in Kenya and Zambia were organized almost exclusively around patronage, those in Mozambique and Zimbabwe were liberation parties that came to power via violent struggle. This difference is critical to explaining diverging post-Cold War regime outcomes: whereas ruling parties in Zambia and Kenya imploded and eventually lost power in these face of crises, those in Mozambique and Zimbabwe remained intact and regimes survived.

Type
Research Article
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 10 , Issue 4 , December 2012 , pp. 869 - 889
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acemoglu, Daron, and Robinson, James A.. 2006. Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ajulu, Rok. 2003. “Kenya: A Reflection on the 2002 Elections: Third Time Lucky or More of the Same?” Institute for Global Dialogue Occasional Paper No. 39. Braamfontein, South Africa: Institute for Global Dialogue.Google Scholar
Alao, Abiodun. 1995. “The Metamorphosis of the ‘Unorthodox’: The Integration and Early Development of the Zimbabwean National Army.” In Soldiers in Zimbabwe's Liberation War, ed. Bhebe, Ngwabi and Ranger, Terence. London: James Currey, Ltd.Google Scholar
Alden, Chris. 2001. Mozambique and the Construction of the New African State: From Negotiations to Nation Building. London: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Alexander, Jocelyn. 1997. The Local State in Post-War Mozambique: Political Practice and Ideas about Authority. Africa 67(1): 1–26.Google Scholar
Alexander, Jocelyn. 2003. “‘Squatters,’ Veterans and the State in Zimbabwe.” In Zimbabwe's Unfinished Business: Rethinking Land, State and Nation in the Context of Crisis, ed. Hammar, Amanda, Raftopoulos, Brian, and Jensen, Stig. Harare: Weaver Press.Google Scholar
Alexander, Jocelyn. 2007. The Unsettled Land: State-Making and the Politics of Land in Zimbabwe 1893–2003. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, David M. 2003. “Briefing: Kenya's Elections 2002—The Dawning of a New Era?” African Affairs 102: 331–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balcells, Laia. 2012. “The Consequences of Victimization on Political Identities: Evidence from Spain.” Politics & Society 40(1): 311–47.Google Scholar
Bartlett, David. 2000. “Civil Society and Democracy: a Zambian Case Study.” Journal of Southern African Studies 26(3): 429–46.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert, and Collier, Paul. 1993. “The Politics and Economics of Policy Reform in Zambia.” In Political and Economic Interactions in Economic Policy Reform, ed. Bates, Robert and Krueger, Anne. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bauer, Gretchen. 2001. “Namibia in the First Decade of Independence: How Democratic?” Journal of Southern African Studies 27(1): 33–55.Google Scholar
Bauer, Gretchen, and Taylor, Scott D.. 2005. Politics in Southern Africa: State and Society in Transition. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Baylies, Carolyn, and Szeftel, Morris. 1992. “The Fall and Rise of Multi-Party Politics in Zambia.” Review of African Political Economy 19(54): 75–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beissinger, Mark R. 2002. Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bienen, Henry, and Van De Walle, Nicolas. 1989. “Time and Power in Africa.” American Political Science Review 83(1): 19–34.Google Scholar
Bienen, Henry, and Van De Walle, Nicolas. 1991 Of Time and Political Power: Leadership Duration in the Modern World. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, David. 2003. Degrees in Violence: Robert Mugabe and the Struggle for Power in Zimbabwe (Revised Edition). London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Blaydes, Lisa. 2011. Elections and Distributive Politics in Mubarak's Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Branch, Daniel. 2009. Defeating Mau Mau, Creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, Civil War, and Decolonization. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Branch, Daniel. 2011. Kenya: Between Hope and Despair, 1963–2011. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Bratton, Michael. 1994. “Economic Crisis and Political Realignment in Zambia.” In Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa, ed. Widner, Jennifer A.. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Bratton, Michael, and Masunungure, Eldred. 2006. “Popular Reactions to State Repression: Operation Murambatsvina in Zimbabwe.” African Affairs 106(422): 21–45.Google Scholar
Bratton, Michael, and van de Walle, Nicolas. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brown, Stephen. 2004. “Theorizing Kenya's Protracted Transition to Democracy.” Journal of Contemporary African Affairs 22(3): 325–42.Google Scholar
Brownlee, Jason. 2007. Durable Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce, Smith, Alastair, Silverson, Randolph, and Morrow, James. 2003. The Logic of Political Survival. Cambridge: MIT University Press.Google Scholar
Cajina, Roberto J. 1997. Transición política y reconversíon militar en Nicaragua, 1990–1995. Managua: CRIES.Google Scholar
Carbone, Giovanni M. 2003. “Emerging Pluralist Politics in Mozambique: The Frelimo–Renamo Party System.” Crisis States Programme Working Paper No. 23. London: London School of Economics Development Research Center.Google Scholar
Chikuhwa, Jacob. 2004. A Crisis of Governance: Zimbabwe. New York: Algora Publishing.Google Scholar
Chung, Fay. 2006. Re-Living the Second Chimurenga. Stockhold: Nordic Africa Institute.Google Scholar
Clinkenbeard, Steven E. 2004. “Donors versus Dictators—The Impact of Multilateral Aid Conditionality on Democratization: Kenya and Malawi in Comparative Context, 1990–2004.” Ph.D. diss., Department Political Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Google Scholar
De Brito, Luis. 2007. “Rebuilding Frelimo's Hegemony in Mozambique: The Politics of a Presidential Succession.” Presented at the conference “The Politics of Nations and Nationalism in Lusophone Africa,” Oxford University, December 6.Google Scholar
Decalo, Samuel. 1998. The Stable Minority: Civilian Rule in Africa. Gainesville, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Du Toit, Pierre. 1995. State Building and Democracy in Southern Africa: Botswana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press.Google Scholar
Evans, Michael. 1992. “Making an African Army: The Case of Zimbabwe, 1980–87.” In Peace, Politics and Violence in the New South Africa, ed. Etherington, Norman. London: Hans Zell Publishers.Google Scholar
Finnegan, William. 1992. A Complicated War: The Harrowing of Mozambique. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Fish, M. Steven. 2005. Democracy Derailed in Russia: The Failure of Open Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer. 2008. Political Institutions under Dictatorship. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geddes, Barbara. 1999. “What Do We Know about Democratization after Twenty Years?” Annual Review of Political Science 2: 115–44.Google Scholar
Geddes, Barbara. 2003. Paradigms and Sand Castles: Theory Building and Research in Comparative Politics. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Geddes, Barbara. 2005. “Why Parties and Elections in Authoritarian Regimes?” Presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, 1–4 September.Google Scholar
Geddes, Barbara. 2008. “Party Creation as an Autocratic Survival Strategy.” Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Gilbert, Dennis. 1988. Sandinistas. New York: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Goldworthy, David. 1986. “Armies and Politics in Civilian Regimes.” In Military Power and Politics in Black Africa, ed. Baynham, Simon. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar
Greene, Kenneth. 2007. Why Dominant Parties Lose: Mexico's Democratization in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Grzymala-Busse, Anna. 2011. “Time Will Tell? Temporality and the Analysis of Causal Mechanisms and Processes.” Comparative Political Studies 44(9): 1267–97.Google Scholar
Haantobolo, Godfrey Hammweela Nachitumbi. 2008. “Civil Control of the Military in Zambia.” Ph.D. diss., Faculty of Commerce, Law, and Management, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.Google Scholar
Han, Yuna. 2009. “South Africa's ANC Split.” Harvard International Review 31(1): 28–31.Google Scholar
Hanson, Stephen E. 2010. Post-Imperial Democracies: Ideology and Party Formation in Third Republic France, Weimar Germany, and Post-Soviet Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harrison, Graham. 1996. “Democracy in Mozambique: The Significance of Multi-Party Elections.” Review of African Political Economy 23(67): 19–35.Google Scholar
Heilmann, Sebastian, and Perry, Elizabeth J.. 2011. Mao's Invisible Hand: The Political Foundations of Adaptive Governance in China. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Henriksen, Thomas H. 1983. Revolution and Counterrevolution: Mozambique's War of Independence, 1964–1974. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Holmquist, Frank, and Ford, Michael. 1994. Kenya: State and Civil Society the First Year After the Election. Africa Today 41(4): 5–25.Google Scholar
Howard, Marc, and Roessler, Philip G.. 2006. “Liberalizing Electoral Outcomes in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes.” American Journal of Political Science 50(2): 207–25.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2008. “Bullets for Each of You.” New York: Human Rights Watch Report, June 19.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1968. Political Order in Changing Societies. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1970. “Social and Institutional Dynamics of One-Party Systems.” In Authoritarian Politics in Modern Society: The Dynamics of Established One-Party Systems, ed. Huntington, Samuel and Moore, C.. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Hyden, Goran. 1994. “Party, State, and Civil Society: Control versus Openness.” In Beyond Capitalism versus Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania, ed. Barkan, Joel D.. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Ihonvbere, Julius O. 1996. Economic Crisis, Civil Society, and Democratization: The Case of Zambia. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2005. “Post-Election Zimbabwe: What Next?” ICG Africa Report No. 93 (June). Harare, Zimbabwe: International Crisis Group.Google Scholar
James, Daniel. 1988. Resistance and Integration: Peronism and the Argentine Working Class, 1946–1976. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jowitt, Ken. 1992. New World Disorder: The Leninist Extinction. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kempton, Daniel R. 1991. “Africa in the Age of Perestroika.” Africa Today 38(3): 7–29.Google Scholar
Kriger, Norma. 2000. “Zimbabwe Today: Hope Against Grim Realities.” Review of African Political Economy 85: 443–50.Google Scholar
Kriger, Norma. 2003a. Guerrilla Veterans in Post-War Zimbabwe: Symbolic and Violent Politics, 1980–1987. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kriger, Norma. 2003b. “Zimbabwe's War Veterans and the Ruling Party: Continuities in Political Dynamics.” In Twenty Years of Independence in Zimbabwe: From Liberation to Authoritarianism, ed. Darnolf, Staffan and Laakso, Liisa. Houndmills: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Lala, Anicia, and Ostheimer, Andrea. 2004. “How to Remove the Stains on Mozambique's Democratic Track Record: Challenges for the Democratization Process between 1990 and 2003.” Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung Occasional Paper. Maputu: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung.Google Scholar
Larmer, Miles. 2008. “Enemies Within? Opposition to the Zambian One-Party State, 1972–1980.” In One Zambia, Many Histories: Towards a History of Post-colonial Zambia, ed. Gewald, Jan-Bart, Hinfelaar, Marja and Macola, Giacomo. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Lawson, Colin. 1988. “Soviet Economic Aid to Africa.” African Affairs 87(349): 501–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeBas, Adrienne. 2006. “Polarization as Craft: Party Formation and State Violence in Zimbabwe.” Comparative Politics 38(4): 419–38.Google Scholar
LeBas, Adrienne. 2011. From Protest to Parties: Party-Building and Democratization in Africa. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan A.. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lindemann, Stefan. 2011. “The Ethnic Politics of Coup Avoidance: Evidence from Zambia and Uganda.” Africa Spectrum 46(2): 3–41.Google Scholar
Lodge, Tom, Kadima, Denis, and Pottie, David. 2002. “Mozambique.” In Compendium of Elections in Southern Africa, ed. Lodge, Tom, Kadima, Denis, and Pottie, David. Johannesburg: Electoral Institute of Southern Africa.Google Scholar
Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2006. “Elections under Authoritarianism: Preliminary Lessons from Jordan.” Democratization 13(3): 465–71.Google Scholar
MacBruce, James. 1992. “Domestic and Regional Security.” In Zimbabwe in Transition, ed. Baynham, Simon. Stockholm: Almquist and Wiskell International.Google Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz. 2006. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and its Demise in Mexico. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz. 2008. “Credible Power Sharing and the Longevity of Authoritarian Rule.” Comparative Political Studies 41(4-5): 715–41.Google Scholar
Makumbe, John. 2001. “ZANU-PF: A Party in Transition?” In Zimbabwe's Turmoil: Problems and Prospects, ed. Cornwell, Richard. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies.Google Scholar
Makumbe, John. 2002. “Zimbabwe's Hijacked Election.” Journal of Democracy 13(4): 87–101.Google Scholar
Malache, Adriano, Macaringue, Paulino, and Borges Coelho, Joao-Paolo. 2005. “Profound Transformations and Regional Conflagrations: The History of Mozambique's Armed Forces, 1975–2005.” In, Evolutions and Revolutions: A Contemporary History of Revolutions in Southern Africa, ed. Rupiya, Martin. Pretoria, South Africa: Institute for Security Studies.Google Scholar
Mandaza, Ibbo. 2007. “Introduction: Edgar Tekere and Zimbabwe's Struggle for Independence.” In Edgar Tekere: A Lifetime of Struggle. Harare: Sapes Books.Google Scholar
Manning, Carrie L. 2002a. “Elite Habituation to Democracy in Mozambique: The View from Parliament, 1994–2000.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 40(1): 61–80.Google Scholar
Manning, Carrie L. 2002b. The Politics of Peace in Mozambique: Post-Conflict Democratization, 1992–2000. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Manning, Carrie L. 2005. “Assessing Adaptation to Democratic Politics in Mozambique: The Case of Frelimo.” In The Fate of Africa's Democratic Experiments: Elites and Institutions, ed. Villalón, Leonardo A. and VonDoepp, Peter. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
McFaul, Michael. 2005. “Transitions from Postcommunism.” Journal of Democracy 16(3): 5–20.Google Scholar
Meredith, Martin. 2002. Our Votes, Our Guns: Robert Mugabe and the Tragedy of Zimbabwe. New York: PublicAffairs.Google Scholar
Miranda, Roger, and Ratliff, William. 1993. The Civil War in Nicaragua: Inside the Sandinistas. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Moss, Todd J. 2007. “Zimbabwe's Meltdown: Anatomy of a Peacetime Economic Collapse.” Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 31(2): 133–48.Google Scholar
Mulford, David. 1967. Zambia: The Politics of Independence 1957–1964. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Munslow, Barry. 1983. Mozambique: The Revolution and Its Origins. New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Mutua, Makua. 2008. Kenya's Quest for Democracy: Taming Leviathan. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mwanakatwe, John M. 1994. End of the Kaunda Era. Lusaka, Zambia: A Multimedia Publication.Google Scholar
Nathan, Andrew. 2001. “Introduction: The Documents and Their Significance.” In The Tiananmen Papers, ed. Nathan, Andrew and Link, Perry. New York: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Ndegwa, Stephen N. 2003. “Kenya: Third Time Lucky?” Journal of Democracy 14 (July): 145–58.Google Scholar
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Sabelo. 2006. “Nationalist–Military Alliance and the Fate of Democracy in Zimbabwe.” African Journal of Conflict Resolution 6(1): 49–80.Google Scholar
Nordlund, Per. 1996. “Organizing the Political Agora: Domination and Democratization in Zambia and Zimbabwe.” Ph.D. diss., Department of Political Science, Uppsala University.Google Scholar
Odhiambo-Mbai, C. 2003. “The Rise and Fall of the Autocratic State in Kenya.” In The Politics of Transition in Kenya: From KANU to NARC, ed. Oyugi, Walter O., Wanyande, Peter, and Mbai, C. Odhiambo. Nairobi: Heinrich Boll Foundation.Google Scholar
O'Donnell, Guillermo, and Schmitter, Philippe C.. 1986. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Ogot, B.A. 1995. “The Decisive Years: 1956–63.” In Decolonization & Independence in Kenya 1940–93, ed. Ogot, B.A. and Ochieng, W.R.. London: James Currey.Google Scholar
Pettman, Jan. 1974. “Zambia's Second Republic: The Establishment of a One-Party State.” Journal of Modern African Studies 12(2): 231–44.Google Scholar
Pitcher, Anne. 2002. Transforming Mozambique: The Politics of Privatization, 1975–2000. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Plank, David. N. 1993. “Aid, Debt and the End of Sovereignty: Mozambique and Its Donors.” Journal of Modern African Studies 31(3): 407–30.Google Scholar
Pond, Elizabeth. 2006. Endgame in the Balkans: Regime Change European Style. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Poppe, Geert. 2009. “The Origins of Mozambique's Liberalization: A Reassessment of Frelimo's Early Years.” Ph.D. diss. Faculty of the Graduate School, University of Southern California.Google Scholar
Prevost, Gary. 1991. “The FSLN as Ruling Party.” In Revolution and Counterrevolution in Nicaragua, ed. Walker, Thomas. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Raftopoulos, Brian. 2001. “The Labor Movement and the Emergence of Opposition Politics.” In Striking Back: The Labor Movement and the Post-Colonial State in Zimbabwe, 1980–2000, ed. Raftopoulos, Brian and Sachikoyne, Lloyd. Harare: Weaver Press.Google Scholar
Raftopoulos, Brian. 2002. “Briefing: Zimbabwe's 2002 Presidential Election.” African Affairs 101(2002): 413–26.Google Scholar
Raftopoulos, Brian. 2003. “The State in Crisis: Authoritarian Nationalism, Selective Citizenship and Distortions of Democracy in Zimbabwe.” In Zimbabwe's Unfinished Business: Rethinking Land, State and Nation in the Context of Crisis, ed. Hammar, Amanda, Raftopoulos, Brian, and Jensen, Stig. Harare: Weaver Press.Google Scholar
Raftopoulos, Brian, and Compagnon, Daniel. 2003. “Indigenization, the State Bourgeoisie and Neo-authoritarian Politics.” In Twenty Years of Independence in Zimbabwe: From Liberation to Authoritarianism, ed. Darnolf, Staffan and Laakso, Liisa. Houndmills: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Rakner, Lise. 2003. Political and Economic Liberalization in Zambia 1991–2001. Stockholm: Nordic Africa Institute.Google Scholar
Rauch, Janine, and Van DerSpuy, Elrena. 2006. Recent Experiments in Police Reform in Post-Conflict Africa: A Review. Pretoria: Idasa.Google Scholar
Reuter, Ora John. 2011. The Origins of Dominant Parties: A Cross-National Investigation. Paper presented at the annual meetings of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, September 2–5, 2010.Google Scholar
Reuter, Ora John, and Gandhi, Jennifer. 2011. “Economic Performance and Elite Defection from Hegemonic Parties.” British Journal of Political Science 41(1): 83–110.Google Scholar
Reuter, Ora John, and Remington, Thomas F.. 2009. “Dominant Party Regimes and the Commitment Problem: The Case of United Russia.” Comparative Political Studies 42(4): 501–26.Google Scholar
Saunders, Richard. 2001. “Striking Ahead: Industrial Action and Labor Movement Development in Zimbabwe.” In Striking Back: The Labor Movement and the Post-Colonial State in Zimbabwe, 1980–2000, ed. Raftopoulos, Brian and Sachikoyne, Lloyd. Harare: Weaver Press.Google Scholar
Saunders, Richard. 2007. “Trade Union Struggles for Autonomy and Democracy in Zimbabwe.” In Trade Unions and the Coming of Democracy in Africa, ed. Kraus, Jon. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Schmitz, Hans Peter. 1999. “Transnational Activism and Political Change in Kenya and Uganda.” In The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change, ed. Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen C. and Sikkink, Kathryn. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schurmann, Franz. 1966. Ideology and Organization in Communist China. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Scott, Ian. 1976. “Party Politics in Zambia: A Study of the Organization of the United National Independence Party.” Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto, School of Graduate Studies.Google Scholar
Seegers, Annette. 1996. “Revolutionary Armies of Africa: Mozambique and Zimbabwe.” In Military Power and Politics in Black Africa, ed. Baynham, Simon. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar
Seton-Watson, Hugh. 1956. The East European Revolution. New York: Frederick A. Praeger.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 1979. States and Social Revolutions. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Slater, Dan. 2009. “Revolutions, Crackdowns, and Quiescence: Communal Elites and Democratic Mobilization in Southeast Asia.” American Journal of Sociology 115(1): 205–54.Google Scholar
Slater, Dan. 2010. Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Slater, Dan, and Smith, Nicholas. 2010. “The Power of Counterrevolution: Contentious Origins of Dominant Party Durability in Asia and Africa.” Presented at the annual meetings of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, September 2–5.Google Scholar
Smith, Benjamin. 2005. “Life of the Party: The Origins of Regime Breakdown and Persistence under Single-Party Rule.” World Politics 57(3): 421–51.Google Scholar
Stoneman, Colin, and Cliffe, Lionel. 1989. Zimbabwe: Politics, Economics, and Society. London: Pinter Publishers.Google Scholar
Svolik, Milan. 2012. The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tamarkin, M. 1978. “The Roots of Political Stability in Kenya.” African Affairs 77(308): 297–320.Google Scholar
Tekere, Edgar. 2007. A Lifetime of Struggle. Harare: Sapes Books.Google Scholar
Tendi, Blessing-Miles. 2010. Making History in Mugabe's Zimbabwe: Politics, Intellectuals and the Media. Oxford: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Throup, David W., and Hornsby, Charles. 1998. Multi-Party Politics in Kenya: The Kenyatta and Moi States and the Triumph of the System in the 1992 Election. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Tordoff, William. 1988. “Political Parties in Zambia.” In Political Parties in the Third World, ed. Randall, Vicky. London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Walker, Thomas W. 1991. “The Armed Forces.” In Revolution and Counterrevolution in Nicaragua, ed. Walker. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Walker, Thomas W. 2003. Nicaragua: Living in the Shadow of the Eagle. Boulder: Westview.Google Scholar
Weinstein, Jeremy. 2007. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Weitzer, Ronald. 1990. Transforming Settler States: Communal Conflict and Internal Security in Northern Ireland and Zimbabwe. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Widner, Jennifer A. 1992. The Rise of a Party-State in Kenya: From “Harambee!” to “Nyayo!” Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Wintrobe, Ronald. 1998. The Political Economy of Dictatorship. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar