Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T18:34:14.189Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

How to Get Away with Cholera: The UN, Haiti, and International Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 March 2016

Abstract

The legalization of world politics is often celebrated for reducing impunity for those who contribute to humanitarian crises. This may sometimes be true but the opposite is also true. In 2010, United Nations peacekeepers unwittingly brought cholera to Haiti and sparked an epidemic. Nearly a million people were made sick and 8,500 died. Legal activists have sought to hold the UN responsible for the harms it caused and win compensation for the cholera victims. However, these efforts have been stymied by the structures of public international law—particularly UN immunity—which effectively insulate the organization from accountability. In short, the UN is empowered, and the cholera victims disempowered, by legalization. The Haiti case powerfully illustrates the dangers of legalism, which have been largely overlooked in discussions of international law, and suggests that law alone is an inadequate arbiter of responsibility in international politics.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agamben, Giorgio. 2005. State of Exception. Trans. Attell, Kevin. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Alter, Karen. 2014a. “The Only Way to Counter Russia.” US News and World Report, March 12. http://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2014/03/11/international-law-is-the-best-tool-to-counter-russias-ukraine-invasion.Google Scholar
Alter, Karen. 2014n. The New Terrain of International Law: Courts, Politics, Rights. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Altwicker, Tilman and Diggelmann, Oliver. 2014. “What Should Remain of the Critical Approaches to International Law? International Law as Critique.” Swiss Review of International and European Law, 1.Google Scholar
American Society for International Law (ASIL). 2014. “Live Event: Remedies for Harm Caused by UN Peacekeepers.” February 26.Google Scholar
Anghie, Antony. 2005. Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archibold, Randal C. 2010. “Officials in Haiti Defend Focus on Cholera Outbreak, Not Its Origins.” New York Times, November 17. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/17/world/americas/17haiti.html.Google Scholar
Arendt, Hannah. 1963. Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. New York: Viking Press.Google Scholar
Arendt, Hannah. 2005. Responsibility and Judgment. Kohn, Jerome, ed. New York: Schocken.Google Scholar
Asad, Talal. 2003. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford: University Press.Google Scholar
Barnett, Michael and Duvall, Raymond, eds. 2005. Power in Global Governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
BBC. 2010. “UN Appeals for Calm After Cholera Riots in Haiti.” November 17. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-11772283.Google Scholar
Boimah v. United Nations General Assembly . 1987. 664 F. Supp. 69, 71 (E.D.N.Y.)Google Scholar
Boon, Kristin. 2013a. “UN Flatly Rejects Haiti Cholera Claim.” Opinio Juris, February 22. http://opiniojuris.org/2013/02/22/un-flatly-rejects-haiti-cholera-claim/2/22/13.Google Scholar
Boon, Kristin. 2013b. “Privileges and Immunities of IOs.” Opinio Juris, June 6. http://opiniojuris.org/2013/06/11/privileges-and-immunities-of-international-organizations.Google Scholar
Brzak v. United Nations . 2008. 551 F. Supp. 2d 313 (S.D.N.Y.)Google Scholar
Brown, J. 2015. The News: Poems. Port Townsend, WA: Copper Canyon Press.Google Scholar
Cane, Peter. 2002. Responsibility in Law and Morality. Oxford: Hart Publishing.Google Scholar
Cooper-Stephenson, Ken. 2013. Constitutional Damages Worldwide. Toronto: Carswell.Google Scholar
Cravioto, Alejandro, Lanata, Claudio, Lantagne, Daniele, and Balakrish Nair, G.. 2011. “Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti.” May 4. http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf.Google Scholar
Crack, Angela M. 2013. “INGO Accountability Deficits: The Imperatives for Further Reform.” Globalizations 10(2): 293308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, James and Koskenniemi, Martti, eds. 2012. The Cambridge Companion to International Law. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickson, Tiphaine. 2015. “Shklar’s Legalism and the Liberal Paradox.” Constellations 22(2): 188198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deloffre, Maryam Zarnegar. 2011. Doing Good: Social Accountability in Humanitarianism (Doctoral dissertation) . George Washington University, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
De Luca v. United Nations Organization . 1994. 841 F. Supp. 531 (S.D.N.Y.)Google Scholar
Dodd, Lynda. 2015. “The Rights Revolution in the Age of Obama and Ferguson: Policing, the Rule of Law, and the Elusive Quest for Accountability.” Perspectives on Politics 13(3): 657–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubois, Laurent. 2012. Haiti: The Aftershocks of History. New York: Metropolitan Books.Google Scholar
Dunkel, Greg. 2010. “U.S. Embargoes against Haiti—From 1806 to 2003.” In Haiti: A Slave Revolution, ed. Ramsey, Clark et al. New York: World View Forum.Google Scholar
Dunoff, Jeffrey and Pollack, Mark A., eds., 2012. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Law and International Relations: The State of the Art. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dupuy, Alex 2014. Haiti: From Revolutionary Slaves to Powerless Citizens. Essays on the Politics and Economics of Underdevelopment, 1804–2013. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Erickson, Stein Sundstøl and Sending, Ole Jacob. 2013. “There Is No Global Public: The Idea of the Public and the Legitimation of Governance.” International Theory 5(2):213237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, Paul, Gardner, Abbey, and Van Der Hoof Holstein, Cassia. 2011. Haiti after the Earthquake. New York: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Fatton, Robert Jr. 2014. Haiti: Trapped in the Outer Periphery. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Feinberg, Joel. 1970. Doing and Deserving: Essays in the Theory of Responsibility. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ferguson, James. 1990. The Anti-Politics Machine. Duluth: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Georges et al. v. UN et al . 2014. Statement of Interest of the United States of America, 1:2013-cv-07146-JPO (S.D.N.Y., March 7). http://personal.crocodoc.com/J4lRXpi.Google Scholar
Georges et al. v. UN et al . 2013. Complaint, 1:2013-cv-07146-JPO (S.D.N.Y., October 9). http://www.ijdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Cholera-Complaint.pdf.Google Scholar
Grovogui, Siba N. 2002. “Regimes of Sovereignty: International Morality and the African Condition.” European Journal of International Relations 8(3): 315–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The Guardian . 2015. “Hollande Promises to Pay ‘Moral Debt’ to Former Colony Haiti.” May 12.Google Scholar
Guzman, Andrew T. 2008. How International Law Works: A Rational Choice Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Honig, Bonnie. 1993. Political Theory and the Displacement of Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Howse, Robert L. and Teitel, Ruti. 2010. “Beyond Compliance: Rethinking why International Law Really Matters.” Global Policy 1(1): 127–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, Isabel V. 2014. A Scrap of Paper: Breaking and Making International Law During the Great War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurd, Ian. 2015a. “The International Rule of Law and the Domestic Analogy.” Global Constitutionalism. 4(3): 365–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurd, Ian. 2015b. “Enchanted and Disenchanted International Law.” Global Policy, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Ikenberry, G. John. 2011. Liberal Leviathan: The Origins, Crisis, and Transformation of the American World Order. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti/Bureau des Advocats Internationaux (IJDH/BAI). 2011. “Petition for Relief.” November 3. http://ijdh.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/englishpetitionREDACTED.pdf.Google Scholar
Jean-Robert et al. v. UN et al . 2014. Complaint, 1:2014-cv-01545 (S.D.N.Y., March 6).Google Scholar
Katz, Jonathan. 2013a. The Big Truck That Went By: How the World Came to Save Haiti and Left Behind a Disaster. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Katz, Jonathan. 2013b. “In the Time of Cholera.” Foreign Policy, January 10. http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/10/in-the-time-of-cholera/.Google Scholar
Kaufmann, Daniel. 2010. “Beyond Emergency Relief for Haiti: The Challenge of Effective Development Assistance.” Brookings, January 19. http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2010/01/19-haiti-kaufmann.Google Scholar
Kennedy, David. 2004. The Dark Side of Virtue: Reassessing International Humanitarianism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinsella, Helen M. 2011. The Image before the Weapon: A Critical History of the Distinction Between Combatant and Civilian. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klabbers, Jan. 2015. The Law of International Organizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Klarrich, Kathie and Polman, Linda. 2012 “The NGO Republic of Haiti.” The Nation, November 19. http://www.thenation.com/article/170929/ngo-republic-haiti#.Google Scholar
Klein, Pierre. 2016. “Responsibility.” In. The Oxford Handbook of International Organizations, ed. Katz Cogan, Jacob, Ian, Hurd, and Ian, Johnstone. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Koenig-Archibugui, Mathias. 2016. “Accountability.” In The Oxford Handbook of International Organizations, ed. Katz Cogan, Jacob, Hurd, Ian, and Johnstone, Ian. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kokott, Julianne and Sobotta, Christoph. 2012. “The Kadi Case—Constitutional Core Values and International Law—Finding the Balance?” European Journal of International Law 23(4): 1015–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koppell, Jonathan GS. 2010. World Rule: Accountability, Legitimacy, and the Design of Global Governance. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koskenniemmi, Martti. 2004. The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Koskenniemmi, Martti. 2011. “The Mystery of Legal Obligation.” International Theory\ 3(2): 319–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kratochwil, Friedrich. 2014. The Status of Law in World Society: Meditations on the Role and Rule of Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ladley, Andrew. 2005. “Peacekeeper Abuse, Immunity and Impunity: The Need for Effective Criminal and Civil Accountability on International Peace Operations.” Politics and Ethics Review 1(1): 8190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lantagne, Daniele, Balakrish Nair, G., Lanata, Claudio, and Cravioto, Alejandro. 2013. “The Cholera Outbreak in Haiti: Where and How Did It Begin?” Current Topics in Microbiology & Immunology 120.Google Scholar
Laventure et al. v. UN et al . 2014. Complaint, 1:2014-cv-01611 (E.D.N.Y., March 11). https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/1073738-140311-laventure-v-un-filed-complaint2.html.Google Scholar
Leebaw, Bronwyn. 2011. Judging State-Sponsored Violence, Imagining Political Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leebaw, Bronwyn. 2014. “Justice, Charity, or Alibi? Humanitarianism, Human Rights, and ‘Humanity Law.’” Humanit, Summer: 261–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lempert v. Rice . 2013. Statement of Interest of the United States of America, 1:12-cv-01518-CKK (D.D.C., May 3). http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/226370.pdf.Google Scholar
Lewis, Patrick J. 2014. “Who Pays for the UN’s Torts? Immunity, Attribution and ‘Appropriate Modes of Settlement.” North Carolina Journal of International Law & Commercial Regulation 32(2): 259331.Google Scholar
Lundhal, Mats. 2011. Poverty in Haiti: Essays on Underdevelopment and Post Disaster Prospects. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundhal, Mats. 2013. The Political Economy of Disaster. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mamdani, Mahmood. 2014. “Beyond Nuremberg: The Historical Significance of the Post-Apartheid Transition in South Africa.” In A Journey of Ideas Across: In Dialog with Edward Said, ed. Shibli, Adania. Berlin: Haus der Kulturen der Welt.Google Scholar
May, Larry. 1996. The Socially Responsive Self: Social Theory and Professional Ethics. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Morrison, Aaron and Charles, Jacqueline. 2013. “Haiti PM: UN Has Moral Responsibility in Haiti Cholera Outbreak.” Miami Herald, September 26. http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/09/26/3653278/haiti-pm-united-nations-has-moral.html.Google Scholar
Moyn, Samuel. 2010. The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Moyn, Samuel. 2013. “Judith Shklar versus the International Criminal Court.” Humanity 4(3): 473500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, Tom. (2014) “UN Peacekeepers Still Not Screened for Cholera Despite Causing Outbreak.” Humanosphere, January 14. http://www.humanosphere.org/2014/01/un-peacekeepers-still-screened-cholera-three-years-since-haiti-outbreak.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Patricia. 2013. “Letter to Brian Concannon.” July 5. http://www.ijdh.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/07/20130705164515.pdf.Google Scholar
Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO). 2014. Interactive Atlas of Cholera in la Hispaniola. http://new.paho.org/hq/images/Atlas_IHR/CholeraHispaniola/atlas.html.Google Scholar
Pomy, Matthew. 2012. “Netherlands High Court Rules UN Immune from Suit.” The Jurist, April 13. http://jurist.org/paperchase/2012/04/un-immune-from-prosecution-says-netherlands-high-court.php.Google Scholar
Quigley, Fran. 2014. “Haiti Strikes Back: By Taking the UN to Court, Haiti Might Save Itself.” Foreign Affairs, May 13. http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/141423/fran-quigley/haiti-strikes-back.Google Scholar
Rajkovic, Nikolas. 2012. “‘Global Law and Governmentality: Reconceptualizing the ‘Rule of Law’ as Rule ‘Through’ Law.” European Journal of International Relations 16: 124.Google Scholar
Rawski, Frederick. 2002. “To Waive or Not to Waive: Immunity and Accountability in UN Peacekeeping Operations.” Connecticut Journal of International Law 18:103–32.Google Scholar
Reuters. 2011. “UN Haiti Cholera Panel Avoids Blaming Peacekeepers.” May 5. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/05/us-haiti-cholera-panel-idUSTRE74457Q20110505.Google Scholar
Sadikoglu v. UN Development Programme . 2011. No. 11 Civ. 0294(PKC), 2011 WL 4953994, (S.D.N.Y).Google Scholar
Savage, Charlie. 2015. “How 4 Federal Lawyers Paved the Way to Kill Osama bin Laden.” New York Times, October 28.Google Scholar
Schaefer, Brett. 2013. “Haiti Cholera Lawsuit against the UN: Recommendations for U.S. Policy.” Heritage Foundation Backgrounder 2859, November 12. http://report.heritage.org/bg2859.Google Scholar
Schuller, Mark. 2007. “Haiti’s 200-Year Ménage-à-Trois: Globalization, the State and Civil Society.” Caribbean Studies 35(1): 141–79.Google Scholar
Schuller, Mark. 2012. Killing with Kindness: Haiti, International Aid, and NGOs. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Schuller, Mark. 2016 (forthcoming). Humanitarian Aftershocks in Haiti. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl. 2014 (1932). Legality and Legitimacy. Trans. Seitzer, Jeffrey. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Sengupta, Somini. 2015. “3 Peacekeepers Accused of Rape in Central African Republic,” New York Times, Aug. 19.Google Scholar
Shklar, Judith N. 1986 [1964]. Legalism: Law, Morals, and Political Trials. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Sikkink, Kathryn. 2011. The Justice Cascade: How Human Rights Prosecutions Are Changing World Politics. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Simmons, Beth A. 2009. Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpson, Gerry. 2004. Great Powers and Outlaw States: Unequal Sovereigns in the International Legal Order. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, Adriana. 2011. “Law, Caution: Toward a Better Understanding of Law for IR Theorists.” Review of International Studies 37: 1095–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Charles and Miller-de la Cuesta, Brandon. 2011. “Human Trafficking in Conflict Zones: The Role of Peacekeepers in the Formation of Networks.” Human Rights Review 12: 287–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sontag, Deborah. 2012. “In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic.” New York Times, March 31. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un.html?pagewanted=all.Google Scholar
“Agreement between the United Nations and the Government of Haiti Concerning the Status of the United Nations Operation in Haiti (SOFA).” 2004. http://www.ijdh.org/2004/07/archive/agreement-between-the-united-nations-and-the-government-of-haiti-concerning-the-status-of-the-united-nations-operation-in-haiti/.Google Scholar
Stichting Mothers of Srebrenica et al. v. The Netherlands . 2013. European Court of Human Rights Decision, Application no. 65541/12, November 11. http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/fra/pages/search.aspx?i=001-122255.Google Scholar
Sweetser, Catherine E. 2008. “Providing Effective Remedies to Victims of Abuse by Peacekeeping Personnel.” New York University Law Review 83: 1643–78.Google Scholar
“UN A/RES/52/247: Third-Party Liability: Temporal and Financial Limitations.” 1998. http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGARsn/1998/31.pdf.Google Scholar
“UN A/61/636: Uniting Our Strengths: Enhancing United Nations Support for the Rule of Law: Report of the Secretary General.” 2006. http://www.unrol.org/doc.aspx?n=2006+Report.pdf.Google Scholar
Veitch, Scott. 2007. Law and Irresponsibility: On the Legitimation of Human Suffering. Abingdon, UK: Routledge-Cavendish Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verdirame, Gugliemo. 2013. The UN and Human Rights: Who Guards the Guardians? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Waite and Kennedy v. Germany . 1999. App No 26083/94 (E.C.H.R).Google Scholar
West, Robin. 2003. “Reconsidering Legalism.” Minnesota Law Review 88: 119–58.Google Scholar
Williams, Andrew Trevor. 2007. “Human Rights and Law: Between Sufferance and Sufferability.” Law Quarterly Review 123: 133–58.Google Scholar
Wouters, Jan and Schmitt, Pierre. 2010. “Challenging Acts of Other United Nations’ Organs, Subsidiary Organs and Officials.” Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies Working Paper No. 49, April. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1767869.Google Scholar
Wuerth, Ingrid B. 2013. “The Supreme Court and the Alien Tort Statute Act: Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co. American Journal of International Law, 107.Google Scholar
Yale Law School, Yale School of Public Health & Association Haitïenne de Droit de L’Environment (Yale). 2013. “Peacekeeping without Accountability: The UN’s Responsibility for the Haitian Cholera Epidemic.” http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Clinics/Haiti_TDC_Final_Report.pdf.Google Scholar