Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T09:39:51.000Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Bounded Rationality without Bounded Democracy: Nudges, Democratic Citizenship, and Pathways for Building Civic Capacity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 November 2018

Mark E. Button Open the ORCID record for Mark E. Button [Opens in a new window]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The behavioral sciences are playing an increasingly important role in the design and implementation of public policy worldwide. While there have been several important critiques of the latest policy revolution linking the behavioral sciences and the state in the pursuit of human behavioral change, few scholars have investigated the potential costs of “nudging” for democratic citizenship and the deliberative capacities upon which democratic self-governance relies. A central purpose here is to consider the possible civic consequences of nudging within the pursuit of otherwise desirable social outcomes (like improved public health, energy conservation, or higher rates of financial saving). Through a critical investigation of the governing philosophy of the “nudging state” and drawing on the policy feedback literature, I argue that the recent behavioral turn in public policy risks overlooking or bypassing the personal capacities and institutional conditions necessary for the meaningful exercise of democratic citizenship. Evidence from the empirical assessment of deliberative democracy shows how liberal societies can fruitfully address bounded rationality while facilitating civic virtues like public practical reason without violating liberty or constraining pluralism.

Type
Article
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 16 , Issue 4 , December 2018 , pp. 1034 - 1052
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allcott, Hunt. 2011. “Social Norms and Energy Conservation.” Public Economics 95(9-10): 1082–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arad, Ayala and Rubinstein, Ariel. 2017. “The People’s Perspective on Libertarian-Paternalistic Policies.” Available at https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ariel_Rubinstein2/publication/321161872_The_People%27s_Perspective_on_Libertarian-Paternalistic_Policies/links/5a129b3e458515cc5aa9e5a4/The-Peoples-Perspective-on-Libertarian-Paternalistic-Policies.pdf.Google Scholar
Aristotle. 2004. The Nichomachean Ethics, trans. Thompson, J. A. K.. New York: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Arendt, Hannah. 1958. The Human Condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Arendt, Hannah. 1963. On Revolution. New York: Viking Press.Google Scholar
Barber, Benjamin R. 1984. Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Barker, Derek W. M. 2017. “Deliberative Justice and Collective Identity: A Virtues-Centered Perspective. Political Theory 45(1): 116–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bavel, van René, Herrmann, Benedikt, Esposito, Gabrile, and Proestakis, Antonios. 2013. “Applying Behavioural Sciences to EU Policy-making.” Joint Research Center Scientific and Policy Reports. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Commission.Google Scholar
Behavioral Insights Team. 2011. Annual Update 2010–11. London: Cabinet Office (United Kingdom).Google Scholar
Benartzi, Shlomo, Beshears, John, Milkman, Katherine L., Sunstein, Cass R., Thaler, Richard H., Shankar, Maya, Tucker-Ray, Will, Congdon, Willima J., and Galing, Steven. 2017. “Should Governments Invest More in Nudging?” Psychological Science 28(8): 1041–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berlin, Isiah. 1969. Four Essays on Liberty. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Beshears, John, Choi, James J., Laibson, David, and Madrian, Briggite C.. 2010. “The Limitations of Defaults.” Available at the National Bureau of Economic Research. Available at http://www.nber.org/aging/rrc/papers_files/orrc10-02/orrc10-02.pdf.Google Scholar
Blumenthal-Barby, J. S. 2012. “Between Reason and Coercion: Ethically Permissible Influence in Health Care and Health Policy Contexts.” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 22(4): 345–66.Google Scholar
Blumenthal-Barby, J. S. and Burroughs, Hadley. 2012. “Seeking Better Health Care Outcomes: The Ethics of Using the ‘Nudge.’” American Journal of Bioethics 12(2): 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bovens, Luc. 2009. “The Ethics of Nudge.” In Preference Change, ed. Grüne-Yanof, Till and Hansson, Sven Ove. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Bowles, Samuel. 2016. The Moral Economy: Why Good Incentive Are No Substitute for Good Citizens. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Brehm, Jack W. 1966. A Psychological Theory of Reactance. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Brennan, Jason. 2016. Against Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Jeffrey R., Farrell, Anne M., and Weisbenner, Scott J.. 2011. “The Downside of Defaults.” Available at the National Bureau of Economic Research, http://www.nber.org/aging/rrc/papers/orrc12-05.pdf.Google Scholar
Brown, Wendy. 2006. “American Nightmare: Neoliberalism, Neoconservatism, and De-Democratization.” Political Theory 34(6): 690–714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bubb, Ryan and Pildes, Richard H.. 2014. “How Behavioral Economics Trims Its Sails and Why.” Harvard Law Review 127(6): 1593–679.Google Scholar
Button, Mark E. 2016. Political Vices. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Button, Mark E. and Garrett, Jacob. 2016. “Impartiality in Political Judgment: Deliberative not Philosophical.” Political Studies 64(1): 35–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callan, Eamonn K. 2015. “Debate: Liberal Virtues and Civic Education.” Journal of Political Philosophy 23(4): 491–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camerer, Colin, Issacharoff, Samuel, Loewenstein, George, O’Donoghue, Ted, and Rabin, Matthew. 2003. “Regulation for Conservatives: Behavioral Economics and the Case for ‘Asymmetric Paternalism.’” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 151(3): 1211–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caplan, Bryan. 2007. The Myth of the Rational Voter: Why Democracies Choose Bad Policies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Carcasson, Martin. 2010. “Facilitating Democracy: Centers and Institutes of Public Deliberation and Collaborative Problem Solving.” New Directions for Higher Education 152: 51–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, Robert. 1961. “The Behavioral Approach in Political Science: Epitaph for a Monument for a Successful Revolution.” American Political Science Review 55(4): 763–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidai, Shai, Gilovich, Thomas, and Ross, Lee D.. 2012. “The Meaning of Default Options for Potential Organ Donors.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(38): 15201–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deci, Edward L. and Ryan, Richard M.. 1985. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Department of Health, HM Government. 2010. “Healthy Lives, Healthy People: Our Strategy for Public Health in England.” London: HMSO.Google Scholar
DeWall, Nathan C., Baumeister, Roy F., and Masicampo, E. J.. 2008. “Evidence that Logical Reasoning Depends on Conscious Processing.” Consciousness and Cognition 17(3): 628–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan, Paul, Hallsworth, Michael, Halpern, David, King, Dominic, and Vlaev, Ivo. 2010. MINDSPACE: Influencing Behaviour through Public Policy. London: Institute of Government.Google Scholar
Druckman, James N. 2004. “Political Preference Formation: Competition, Deliberation, and the (Ir)relevance of Framing Effects.” American Political Science Review 98(4): 671–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Druckman, James N. and Nelson, Kjersten R.. 2003. “Framing and Deliberation.” American Journal of Political Science 47: 728– 44.Google Scholar
Dryzek, John S. 2006. “Revolutions without Enemies: Key Transformation in Political Science.” American Political Science Review 100(4): 487–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dryzek, John S. 2009. “Democratization as Deliberative Capacity Building.” Comparative Political Studies 42(11): 1379–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Easton, David. 1953. The Political System: An Inquiry in the State of Political Science. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Egebark, Johan and Ekström, Mathias. 2016. “Can Indifference Make the World Greener?” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 76: 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eulau, Heinz. 1963. The Behavioral Persuasion in Politics. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Ewert, Benjamin. 2018. “From Entitled Citizens to Nudged Consumers? Re-examining the Hallmarks of Health Citizenship in the Light of the Behavioural Turn. Public Policy and Administration. Available at https://doi.org/10.1177/0952076718774612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faggato, Elana and Fung, Archon. 2006. Embedded Deliberation: Entrepreneurs, Organizations, and Public Action. Final Report for the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, Taubman Center for State and Local Government, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Farr, James. 1995. “Remembering the Revolution: Behavioralism in American Political Science.” In Political Science in History: Research Programs and Political Traditions, ed. Farr, James, Dryzek, John S., and Leonard, Stephen T.. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Felsen, Gidon, Castelo, Noah, and Reiner, Peter B.. 2013. “Decisional Enhancement and Autonomy: Public Attitudes towards Overt Nudges.” Judgment and Decision Making 8(3): 202–13.Google Scholar
Frey, Bruno S. 1997. “A Constitution for Knaves Drives Out Civic Virtues.” Economics Journal 107(443): 1043–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fung, Archon. 2003a. Empowered Participation: Reinventing Urban Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Fung, Archon. 2003b. “Survey Article: Recipes for Public Spheres: Eight Institutional Design Choices and Their Consequences.” Journal of Political Philosophy 11(3): 338–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gastil, John. 2000. By Popular Demand: Revitalizing Representative Democracy Through Deliberative Elections. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gastil, John and Levine, Peter. 2005. The Deliberative Democracy Handbook. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Gigerenzer, Gerd. 2015. “On the Supposed Evidence for Libertarian Paternalism.” Review of Philosophy and Psychology 6(3): 361–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gigerenzer, Gerd and Selten, Reinhard. 2001. Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Toolbox. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Glaeser, Edward L. 2006. “Paternalism and Psychology.” University of Chicago Law Review 73(1): 133–56.Google Scholar
Goodin, Robert E. and Dryzek, John S.. 2006. “Deliberative Impacts: The Macro-Political Uptake of Mini-Publics.” Politics and Society 34(2): 219–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gowdy, John M. 2008. “Behavioral Economics and Climate Change Policy.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 68: 632–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grönlund, Kimmo, Setälä, Maija, and Herne, Kaisa. 2010. “Deliberation and Civic Virtue: Lessons from a Citizen Deliberation Experiment.” European Political Science Review 2(1): 95–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grüne-Yanoff, Till and Hertwig, Ralph. 2016. “Nudge versus Boost: How Coherent Are Policy and Theory?” Minds and Machines 26(1-2): 149–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnell, John G. 1993. The Descent of Political Theory: The Genealogy of an American Vocation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Gutmann, Amy and Thompson, Dennis. 1996. Democracy and Disagreement. Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard Press.Google Scholar
Hagman, William, Andersson, David, Västfjäll, Daniel, and Tinghög, Gustav. 2015. “Public Views on Policies Involving Nudges.” Review of Philosophy and Psychology 6(3): 439–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallsworth, Michael, List, John A, Metcalfe, Robert D., and Vlaev, Ivo. 2017. “The Behavioralist as Tax Collector: Using Natural Field Experiments to Enhance Tax Compliance.” Journal of Public Economics 148: 14–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallsworth, Michael and Sanders, Michael. 2016. “Nudge: Recent Developments in Behavioral Science and Public Policy.” In Beyond Behavior Change, ed. Spotswood, Fiona. Bristol: Policy Press.Google Scholar
Halpern, David. 2015. Inside the Nudge Unit. London: Ebury Press.Google Scholar
Hansen, Pelle Guldorg. 2016. “The Definition of Nudge and Libertarian Paternalism: Does the Hand Fit the Glove?” European Journal of Risk Regulation 7(1): 155–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hausman, Daniel M. and Welch, Brynn. 2010. “Debate: To Nudge or Not to Nudge.” Journal of Political Philosophy 18(1): 123–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Held, David. 2006. Models of Democracy. 3d ed. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Hertwig, Ralph and Grüne-Yanoff, Till. 2017. “Nudging and Boosting: Steering or Empowering Good Decisions.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 12(6): 927–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hertwig, Ralph and Ryall, M. D.. 2016. “Nudge vs. Boost: Agency Dynamics under ‘Libertarian Paternalism.’” Available at SSRN:https://ssrn.com/abstract=2711166 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2711166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hibbing, John R. and Theiss-Morse, Elizabeth. 2002. Stealth Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hursthouse, Rosalind. 1999. On Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Isin, Engin F. 2004. “The Neurotic Citizen.” Citizenship Studies 8(3): 217–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarvis, W. Blair and Petty, Richard E.. 1996. “The Need to Evaluate.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70(1): 172–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
John, Peter, Smith, Graham, and Stoker, Gerry. 2009. “Nudge Nudge, Think Think: Two Strategies for Changing Civic Behaviour.” Political Quarterly 80(3): 361–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
John, Peter, Cotterill, Sarah, Moseley, Alice, Richardson, Liz, Smith, Graham, Stoker, Gerry, and Wales, Corinne. 2011. Nudge, Nudge, Think, Think: Experimenting with Ways to Change Civic Behaviour. London: Bloomsbury Academic.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Carolina and Gastil, John. 2015. “Variations of Institutional Design for Empowered Deliberation.” Journal of Public Deliberation 11(1): 1–32.Google Scholar
Jones, Rhys, Pykett, Jessica, and Whitehead, Mark. 2011. “Governing Temptation: Changing Behaviour in an Age of Libertarian Paternalism.” Progress in Human Geography 35(4): 483–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Rhys, Pykett, Jessica, and Whitehead, Mark. 2013. “Psychological Governance and Behaviour Change.” Policy and Politics 41(2): 159–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jung, Janice Y. and Mellers, Barbara A.. 2016. “American Attitudes toward Nudges.” Judgment and Decision Making 11(1): 62–74.Google Scholar
Kahneman, Daniel. 2011. Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.Google Scholar
Kahneman, Daniel and Tversky, Amos. 1982. Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klick, Jonathan and Mitchell, Gregory. 2006. “Government Regulation of Irrationality: Moral and Cognitive Hazards.” Minnesota Law Review 90(6): 1620–63.Google Scholar
Landemore, Hélène. 2013. Democratic Reason: Politics, Collective Intelligence, and the Rule of the Many. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Leggett, Will. 2014. “The Politics of Behaviour Change: Nudge, Neoliberalism and the State.” Policy and Politics 42(1): 3–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, George, Bryce, Cindy, Hagmann, David, and Rajpal, Sachin. 2015. “Warning: You Are about To Be Nudged.” Behavioral Science and Policy 1(1): 35–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lunn, Pete. 2014. Regulatory Policy and Behavioural Economics. Paris: OECD Publishing.Google Scholar
Manin, Bernard. 1987. “On Legitimacy and Political Deliberation.” Political Theory 15(3): 338–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane, Bohman, James, Chambers, Simone, Estlund, David, Føllesdal, Andreas, Fung, Archon, Lafont, Cristina, Manin, Bernard, and Martí, José Luis. 2010. “The Place of Self-Interest and the Role of Power in Deliberative Democracy.” Journal of Political Philosophy 18(1): 64–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mata, Rui, Pachur, Thorsten, Helversen, Bettina von, Hertwig, Ralph, Rieskamp, Jörg, and Schooler, Lael. 2012. “Ecological Rationality: A Framework for Understanding and Aiding the Aging Decision Maker.” Frontiers in Neuroscience 6(19): 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMahon, John. 2015. “Behavioral Economics as Neoliberalism: Producing and Governing Homo Economicus.” Contemporary Political Theory 14(2): 137–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markovits, Elizabeth K. and Bickford, Susan. 2014. “Constructing Freedom: Institutional Pathways to Changing the Gender Division of Labor.” Perspectives on Politics 12(1): 81–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendelberg, Tali and Oleske, John. 2000. “Race and Public Deliberation.” Political Communication 17(2): 169–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercier, Hugo and Landemore, Hélène. 2012. “Reasoning Is for Arguing: Understanding the Successes and Failures of Deliberation.” Political Psychology 33(2): 243–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mettler, Suzanne B. 2002. “Bringing the State Back in to Civic Engagement: Policy Feedback Effects of the G.I. Bill for World War II Veterans.” American Political Science Review 96(2): 351–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mettler, Suzanne B. and Soss, Joe. 2004. “The Consequences of Public Policy for Democratic Citizenship: Bridging Policy Studies and Mass Politics.” Perspectives on Politics 2(1): 55–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, Gregory. 2005. “Libertarian Paternalism is an Oxymoron.” Northwestern University Law Review 99(3): 1245–77.Google Scholar
Mols, Frank, Alexander Haslam, S., Jetten, Jolanda, and Steffens, Niklas. 2015. “Why a Nudge Is Not Enough: A Social Identity Critique of Government by Stealth.” European Journal of Political Research 54(1): 81–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrell, Michael E. 2005. “Deliberation, Democratic Decision-Making and Internal Political Efficacy.” Political Behavior 27(1): 49–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nabatchi, Tina. 2010. “Deliberative Democracy and Citizenship: In Search of the Efficacy Effect.” Journal of Public Deliberation 6(2): 1–47.Google Scholar
Neblo, Michael A., Esterling, Kevin M., Kennedy, Ryan P., Lazer, David M. J., and Sokhey, Anand E.. 2010. “Who Wants to Deliberate—and Why?” American Political Science Review 104(3): 566–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niemeyer, Simon and Dryzek, John S.. 2007. “The Ends of Deliberation: Metaconsensus and Intersubjective Rationality as Deliberative Ideals.” Swiss Political Science Review 13(4): 497–526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niemeyer, Simon. 2011. “The Emancipatory Effect of Deliberation: Empirical Lessons from Mini-Publics.” Politics and Society 39(1): 103–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obama, Barack. 2015. “Using Behavioral Science Insights to Better Serve the American People.” Executive Order 13707, September 15. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor. 1998. “A Behavioral Approach to the Rational Choice Theory of Collective Action.” American Political Science Review 92(1): 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor. 2000. “Crowding Out Citizenship.” Scandinavian Political Science Studies 23(1): 3–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkinson, John. 2003. “Legitimacy Problems in Deliberative Democracy.” Political Studies 51(1): 180–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkinson, John and Mansbridge, Jane. 2012. Deliberative Systems: Deliberative Democracy at the Large Scale. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierson, Paul. 1993. “When Effect Becomes Cause: Policy Feedback and Political Change.” World Politics 45(4) 595–628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rebonato, Riccardo. 2012. Taking Liberties: A Critical Examination of Libertarian Paternalism. New York: Palgrave Press.Google Scholar
Sanders, Lynn. 1997. “Against Deliberation.” Political Theory 25(3): 347–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schattschneider, E. E. 1935. Politics, Pressures, and the Tariff: A Study of Free Private Enterprise in Pressure Politics, as Shown in the 1929–1930 Revision of the Tariff. New York: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Shklar, Judith N. 1984. Ordinary Vices. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.Google Scholar
Simon, Herbert A. 1955. “A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 69(1): 99–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, Herbert A. 1979. “Information Processing Models of Cognition.” Annual Review of Psychology 30: 363–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 1992. Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Graham. 2009. Democratic Innovations: Designing Institutions for Citizen Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soss, Joe and Schram, Sanford F.. 2007. “A Public Transformed? Welfare Reform as Policy Feedback.” American Political Science Review 101(1): 111–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sugden, Robert. 2009. “On Nudging: A Review of Nudge.” International Journal of the Economics of Business 16(3): 365–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, Cass R. 2002. “The Law of Group Polarization.” Journal of Political Philosophy 10(2): 175–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, Cass R. 2014. Why Nudge? The Politics of Libertarian Paternalism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sunstein, Cass R. 2015. Choosing Not to Choose: Understanding the Value of Choice. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sunstein, Cass R. 2016. The Ethics of Influence: Government in the Age of Behavioral Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tannenbaum, David, Fox, Craig R., and Rogers, Todd. 2017. “On the Misplaced Politics of Behavioural Policy Interventions.” Nature Human Behaviour 1, #0130: 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaler, Richard and Benartzi, Shlomo. 2004. “Save More Tomorrow: Using Behavioral Economics to Increase Employee Saving.” Journal of Political Economy 112(S1): S164–S187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaler, Richard and Sunstein, Cass R.. 2009. Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Rev.. and expanded ed. New York: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. 2003. “Inequality, Democratization, and De-Democratization.” Sociological Theory 21(1): 37–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waldron, Jeremy. 2014. “It’s All for Your Own Good.” New York Review of Books, October 9.Google Scholar
Warren, Mark E. and Gastil, John. 2015. “Can Deliberative Minipublics Address the Cognitive Challenges of Democratic Citizenship?” Journal of Politics 77(2): 562–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, Janette. 2012. “Climate Change and Society: The Chimera of Behaviour Change Technologies.” Sociology 46(1): 109–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitehead, Mark, Jones, Rhys, Howell, Rachel, Lilley, Rachel, and Pykett, Jessica. 2014. Nudging All Over the World: The Final Report. Available at https://changingbehaviours.wordpress.com/2014/09/05/nudging-all-over-the-world-the-final-report/Google Scholar
Wilkinson, T. M. 2013. “Nudging and Manipulation.” Political Studies 61(2): 341–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolin, Sheldon. 1969. “Political Theory as a Vocation.” American Political Science Review 63(4): 1062–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Bank. 2015. World Development Report 2015: Mind, Society, and Behavior. A World Bank Group Flagship Report. Washington, DC: The World Bank.Google Scholar