Nosema algerae and N. eurytremae were successfully cultured in embryonic rat brain, Xenopus XTC-6 and Chang liver cells, and in embryonic rat brain and XTC-6 cells respectively. No parasites grew in cultures incubated at 38 °C but development took place in cells incubated at 34 °C and 27 °C. Increased levels of infections of the cultured cells were achieved by centrifugation of the spores on to the cells. The level of infection was also related to the type of medium used for hatching the spores, modifies NMRI giving better results than Leibowitz L15, and to the interval between adding the spores to the cell cultures and centrifugation.

Engorged, parasitic water mites were observed to decrease the growth rate and to increase the stadium length of nymphal backswimmers. Unengorged mites were found to have no effect on the host. The extended stadium lengths of parasitized hosts should reduce the instantaneous rate of natural increase of populations of parasitized hosts because this rate is sensitive to any factor that delays the onset of reproduction.

Two simple experiments were undertaken using the viviparous ectoparasite, Gyrodactylus bullatarudis, and laboratory-reared guppies, Poecilia reticulata, whereby detailed records of the number and temporal sequence of all births and the age at death were obtained for flukes on isolated guppies. Gyrodactylus bullatarudis has an average fecundity of 1·68 offspring during its expected life-span of 4·20 days. The instantaneous birth rate is independent of generation but dependent on age. The first offspring is born approximately 1 day after the birth of the parent and subsequent offspring are born at 2–2·5 day intervals. The average instantancous birth rate (under given experimental conditions) is 0.43/parasite/day. The death rate increases exponentially with the age of the fluke and has an average value of 0.24/parasite/day. A simple deterministic model incorporating age structure and an age-dependent death rate was found to provide a good fit to the observed exponential increase in G. bullatarudis numbers. The variability observed in this host–parasite system was found to be largely a function of chance, as shown by Monte Carlo simulations of stochastic birth–death processes.

The fine structure and histochemistry of the envelopes surrounding the mature oncosphere of Hymenolepis diminuta have been investigated by transmission electron microscopy and light microscope observations of JB-4 embedded material. The fate of these envelopes during the hatching sequence in vitro has been followed by phase-contrast and scanning electron microscopy. Hatching is considered to comprise 4 stages. Stage 1 involves the mechanical breakage and removal of the shell and the outer cytoplasmic layer of the inner envelope; Stage 2 the activation of the oncosphere and the swelling of the gelatinous layer of the inner envelope; and Stage 3 the digestion and rupture of the embryophore. This is accomplished both by secretions from the penetration gland and by the action of external digestive enzymes, together with hook activity. Trypsin is more effective than amylase in digesting the embryophore. Stage 4 involves the enzymatic weakening of the gelatinous layer which helps the oncosphere to tear itself free with its hooks. Amylase is more effective than trypsin in attacking the gelatinous layer. On emergence from the gelatinous layer, the oncosphere is still enveloped by the ‘oncospheral membrane’, although this covering is soon lost. Once activated, the oncosphere is capable of completing the hatching sequence by itself, without the addition of enzymes. This process is a lengthy one, however, taking up to 2 h, and the expenditure of its glandular and energy reserves makes successful gut penetration by the oncosphere unlikely.

The electrophoretic mobility of glucose phosphate isomerase (GPI) has been used to identify Eimeria acervulina, E. praecox and E. mivati in isolates of coccidia from commercial sites in the United Kingdom. Mixtures of two or three species gave separate bands upon electrophoresis and each species could be identified provided that it formed at least 10–20% of the total number of oocysts present in a sample of 8 × 106 oocysts. The principal forms of GPI corresponded to the GPI of E. acervulina (H), E. praecox (H) and E. mivati (W) and were found in 38, 34 and 8 isolates respectively of the 46 examined. Three further variants of GPI are described.

Ten albino rats injected with hydrocortisone were infected with 36–66 cystacanths of Corynosoma semerme in order to study the course of infection in a warm-blooded animal. Surveys were carried out 2, 5, 8, 14, 18, 21 and 28 days after infection. Recovery decreased from 60% after 2–5 days to 22% after 28 days. The proportion of males dropped markedly before the 8th day of infection. The worms were concentrated in the latter half of the intestine, the males being in a more anterior location on average. The males matured between the 2nd and 5th day of infection. Disintegrated ovaries were observed in some of the 2-day-old females, but mature free ovaries were seen only in 5-day-old females. By the 14th day many females contained fully developed eggs, but it was only after the 18th day that the number of eggs increased considerably. Male worms were not encountered in the 4-week-old infection. The females were longer than the males. In the present study, experimental infections are compared with other acanthocephalan infections in both birds and mammals.

On a coastal farm in New South Wales where beef and dairy cattle production was carried on side-by-side, separate pasture plots were contaminated with eggs of Ostertagia ostertagi by calves from each production system in autumn, winter or spring. Successive groups of parasite-free tracer calves grazed on the plots for 14 days at 4-week intervals and were then killed for worm counts 14 days after removal from pasture. On all plots, the proportion of inhibited early 4th-stage larvae in tracer calves reached a maximum in spring, and was consistently and very significantly higher in calves which grazed plots contaminated with O. ostertagi of beef cattle origin. Factors which may be responsible for this difference between beef and dairy cattle populations of O. ostertagi are discussed.

Clun forest sheep, worm-free from birth, were given a single dose of 20000 infective larvae of Haemonchus contortus. The total number of eggs/day in the faeces was recorded for 21 infections and data on population size, sex ratio and individual worm development were collected from 76 sheep. The female to male ratio was 1·28±0·07 (s.E.). The relation between increase in worm size and uterine egg content was linear. The number of eggs present in the uteri was found to be an accurate measure of eggs passed. It was shown that the daily faecal egg output is related to total parasite weight and is not a measure of the number of individuals present.

Eimeria cernae is recorded for the first time in England and the life-cycle is described in experimentally infected bank-voles (Clethrionomys glareolus). The pre-patent period was 6 days and the patent period was 4–6 days. Oocysts were ellipsoidal in shape and measured 20·2 × 15·9 μm. Sporocysts, measuring 11·5 μm long and 6·8 μm wide, possessed a small stieda body and contained a mass of granular sporocyst residuum. The endogenous stages developed in the epithelial cells of the colon and rectum. Three generations of schizonts were found. The lst-generation schizont seen at 48 h post-infection (p.i.) contained up to 8 merozoites, the 2nd-generation schizont seen at 72 h p.i. had a mean number of 16 (12–20) merozoites and the 3rd-generation schizont at 96 h p.i. had a mean of 18 (14–21) merozoites. Gamogonic stages were present from 96 to 120 h p.i. in the rectum only.

Populations of Ostertagia ostertagi established from fresh larvae and from larvae stored at 4 °C for up to 12 weeks contained about 10% inhibited early 4th-stage larvae. This value rose to 21% after 16 weeks, due to an increase in numbers of inhibited larvae while adult numbers remained unchanged. Storage at 15 °C had no effect. In the case of larvae stored at 4 °C for 8 weeks, increasing the larval dose to 90000 had no significant effect on the proportion of the dose which was inhibited. The response to low temperature storage was much weaker than in previously reported studies on British populations, which accords with our earlier conclusion that low temperature cannot be the effective stimulus for inhibition in Australia.

Chondracanthus yanezi Atria and Neobrachiella amphipacifica sp. nov. are described based on material collected from Psychrolutes phrictus Stein and Bond trawled off northern California. N. amphipacifica is also recorded from Psychrolutes sio Nelson trawled off northern Chile. Both host species are deep water forms of Psychrolutes.

A rapid technique for the extraction of helminth eggs from vegetation and water is presented. The technique includes a period of continuous action centrifugation and gives recovery efficiencies of 84 % and 96 % from water and vegetation respectively.

A population approach was employed to study the effects of a bopyrid isopod, Aporobopyrus muguensis, on the growth and reproduction of its anomuran host, Pachycheles rudis. Indirect evidence, provided by the size-specific prevalence pattern, and direct evidence, provided by laboratory moult frequencies and moult-stage data, indicated that the frequency of moulting was reduced among parasitized crabs. Moult increments of parasitized crabs were less than those of non-parasitized crabs. Although parasitized female P. rudis were able to reproduce, their fecundity was substantially reduced. Parasitized female hosts appeared to be delayed in their attainment of sexual maturity. Once mature, these crabs produced significantly smaller size-specific clutches than those produced by non-parasitized female crabs. Because fecundity increases with size in P. rudis, the slower growth rates of parasitized female hosts may further limit their fecundity. Potential mechanisms by which A. muguensis limits the growth and reproduction of P. rudis are discussed.

Morphological and cytochemical aspects of the host response to almost mature exo-erythrocytic forms (EEF) of Plasmodium berghei in rat hepatocytes were studied by electron microscopy. Young stages (< 47 h) never evoked a local reaction. Two types of nearly mature EEF (47–51 h) could be distinguished, normal (EEF type I) and those that were the target of infiltrating cells (EEF type II). The latter were in a stage of early or advanced degeneration and generally exhibited increased electron density, especially in the contents of their peripheral vacuoles. Neither type of EEF exhibited detectable enzyme activity, although host cell enzymes, such as peroxidase and 5-nucleotidase, were demonstrable. However, the infected liver cell appeared permeable to ruthenium red whereas non-infected hepatocytes were not. When signs of degeneration were present, as shown by the increasing density of the cytoplasm, loss of enzyme activities occurred. The encompassing mononuclear cells were identified as true monocytes, non-monocyte-derived and monocyte-derived macrophages by their endogenous peroxidase activity. Macrophage filopodia penetrated and cleaved both hepatocyte and parasite cytoplasms. Subsequently, digestion and clearing of the remnants took place. This study clearly demonstrated that a proportion of the intra-hepatocytic EEF was destroyed by macrophages before they were able to mature completely and release their merozoites.

Faeces containing eggs of Hyostrongylus rubidus were deposited on grass plots each month throughout 1980. Eggs in faeces deposited on plots from May to October developed into infective larvae but in May development was completed only in artificially moistened faeces, the weather was warm and dry and natural faeces dried out rapidly resulting in the death of eggs and pre-infective larvae. For the remainder of this period the weather was sufficiently warm and wet for development to be completed. More eggs developed into infective larvae on plots with well-grown herbage than on plots with short herbage. In April a few eggs survived and developed into lst-stage larvae but no further development took place. In the laboratory development was completed at temperatures ranging from 10 to 27 °C but no development took place at 4 °C. Out-of-doors infective larvae survived on herbage for up to 10 months while in the laboratory, infective larvae suspended in tap water survived even longer at 10 and 22 °C, but the larvae were rapidly killed by continuous freezing and by desiccation when the relative humidity was less than 95%. The relationship between climatic conditions and the development and survival of the free-living stages is discussed and a comparison made with the free-living stages of Oesophagostomum dentatum.

The metacercarial cyst wall of Bucephaloides gracilescens is bilayered. It comprises an inner granular layer of pepsin-resistant carbohydrate and protein material secreted by the parasite, and an outer fibrous and cellular capsule susceptible to pepsin digestion and elaborated by the host. The capsule of cysts from the orbits and nasal regions of the whiting host are substantially thicker than those from the cranial cavity. Cells in the outer portion of the capsule resemble fibrocytes engaged in the synthesis and secretion of collagen; collagen fibres form a loose meshwork in the intercellular space. The cells incorporated [3H]proline in vitro, but not [3H]tyrosine. The cells of the inner portion of the capsule are closely packed and possess pyknotic nuclei; desmosomes and cytofilaments are numerous and probably impart strength and elasticity, respectively, to the cyst wall. Host cells are necrotic at the interface with the inner cyst wall, possibly due to compression or isolation from oxygen and nutrients. Differences in the levels of incorporation of trace-labelled substrates by encysted metacercariae were related to the site of infection and to the thickness and permeability of the cyst wall.

Promastigotes of Leishmania braziliensis panamensis absorbed the purines adenine, hypoxanthine, adenosine and inosine by a combination of diffusion and mediated components. When the uptake rates for these substrates were corrected for diffusion and compared, the purine bases adenine and hypoxanthine were transported at a significantly slower rate than the purine nucleosides adenosine and inosine. Competitive interactions among those purines tested confirmed the presence of mediated and diffusion components and suggested that three transport loci may be operating (Fig. 6). The first transport locus, designated Locus 1, transported inosine, Locus 2, the purine bases hypoxanthine and adenine and Locus 3, adenosine. In addition, adenine and hypoxanthine inhibited the uptake of one another competitively. A comparison of Ki values derived from double reciprocal plots of labelled hypoxanthine and adenine uptake in the presence of the unlabelled substrates as inhibitors suggested that adenine has a greater affinity for the transport locus.

The dynamics of infection of the fish host Poecilia latipinna by free-swimming tomites of the ciliate Ichthyophthirius multifiliis and the age-dependent survival of these infective stages are examined experimentally. Simple deterministic models are developed to aid the analysis of experimental results. Under defined laboratory conditions it is found that virtually all recently emerged infective stages successfully locate a host and that there appear to be no density-dependent constraints on parasite establishment on naive hosts. The overall reproductive success of the parasite is therefore shown to be determined by the proportion of infective stages encountering a host that are able to develop to form adult parasites. Variability between hosts in proportional establishment is postulated as the generating mechanism of the high observed heterogeneity in parasite burden/host. A model is described which predicts a simple relationship between mean parasite burden and variance in burden/host.

Microfilariae of Onchocerca lienalis were obtained from the umbilical skin of naturally infected cattle and were injected into mice. Maximum numbers of microfilariae were recovered from the skin and ears of mice when using the subcutaneous route of inoculation. Microfilariae were distributed throughout the pinna of the ear but were concentrated towards the tip where histological sections showed them to be in the dermis and adipose tissue. Using the number of parasites recovered from the ears as an index of the intensity of infection it was found that inbred CBA/H T6T6 mice were one of the most susceptible of 11 strains of mice examined. No difference in susceptibility was found between male and female CBA mice of the same age, but marked differences were demonstrated between male CBA mice of different ages. After infection with 5000 microfilariae the recovery of parasites from the ears increased rapidly to a peak at day 35 when 10% of the inoculum was recovered, and thereafter declined up to day 242. Over a range of inoculation doses examined it was found that there was a direct, linear relationship between the number of microfilariae recovered from the ears and the number in the inoculated dose. CBA mice showed marked resistance to reinfection with microfilariae. Six days after challenge with a secondary infection recoveries of microfilariae from the ears were only 26% of the level in challenge controls and fell to 3% of the level of controls by day 35. It is concluded that the model of O. lienalis microfilariae in CBA mice shows considerable promise as a tool for research into immunological responses to skin-dwelling microfilariae, which are the principal cause of pathology in onchocerciasis.

The present study deals with the infection dynamics of Diplostomum spathaceum and with the direct parasite-associated mortality of its experimental fish host, guppies (Lebistes reticulatis) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). The relationship between exposure density and cercarial penetration of the hosts is essentially linear. There is a significant decrease in the proportion of penetrating cercariae that establish themselves in the fish lens at a high exposure density. The host death rate increases exponentially with parasite burden in both guppies and brook trout.