Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T00:59:36.280Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The journey towards elimination of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis: not far, nor easy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 January 2014

J. R. FRANCO ,
P. P. SIMARRO ,
A. DIARRA ,
J. A. RUIZ-POSTIGO  and
J. G. JANNIN
J. R. FRANCO*
Affiliation:
World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, 20, Av. Appia, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
P. P. SIMARRO
Affiliation:
World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, 20, Av. Appia, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
A. DIARRA
Affiliation:
World Health Organization, WHO Inter Country Support Team for Central Africa, Regional Office for Africa, IST/CA, BP 820, Libreville, Gabon
J. A. RUIZ-POSTIGO
Affiliation:
World Health Organization, Communicable Disease Control, Control of Tropical Diseases and Zoonoses, Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, P.O. Box: 7608, Nasr City, Cairo 11371, Egypt
J. G. JANNIN
Affiliation:
World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, 20, Av. Appia, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
*
* Corresponding author: World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, 20, Av. Appia, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Considering the epidemic situation of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) at the end of the twentieth century, the World Health Organization (WHO) and partners strengthened disease control and surveillance. Over the last 15 years, the activities implemented through the National Control Programmes have brought gambiense HAT under control and now its elimination is deemed as an achievable goal. In 2012, WHO targeted gambiense HAT for elimination as a public health problem by 2020. The final goal will be the sustainable disease elimination by 2030, defined as the interruption of the transmission of gambiense HAT. The elimination is considered feasible, because of the epidemiological vulnerability of the disease, the current state of control, the availability of strategies and tools and international commitment and political will. Integration of activities in the health system is needed to ensure the sustainability of the elimination. The development of user-friendly diagnostic and treatment tools will facilitate the integration process. Adequate funding is needed to implement activities, but also to support research that will make the elimination sustainable. A long-term commitment by donors is needed and ownership of the process by endemic countries is critical.

Keywords

Human African trypanosomiasisHATsleeping sicknessdisease eliminationgambiense HATT.b. gambiense
Type
Review Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 141 , Issue 6 , May 2014 , pp. 748 - 760
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Brun, R., Blum, J., Chappuis, F. and Burri, C. (2010). Human African trypanosomiasis. Lancet 375, 148–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruto da Costa, B. F., Sant'Anna, J. F., Correia dos Santos, A., de Araujo Alvares, M. G. and Wyllie, J. A. (1916). Sleeping Sickness; a Record of Four Years’ War Against it in Principe, Portuguese West Africa. Published for the Centro colonial, Lisbon, by Ballière, Tindall and Cox, London, UK.Google Scholar
Bucheton, B., MacLeod, A. and Jamonneau, V. (2011). Human host determinants influencing the outcome of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infections. Parasite Immunology 33, 438–447.Google Scholar
Buscher, P., Gilleman, Q. and Lejon, V. (2013). Rapid diagnostic test for sleeping sickness. New England Journal of Medicine 368, 1069–1070.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1993). Recommendations of the International Task Force for Disease Eradication. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 42, No. RR-16.Google Scholar
Checchi, F., Filipe, J. A., Haydon, D. T., Chandramohan, D. and Chappuis, F. (2008). Estimates of the duration of the early and late stage of gambiense sleeping sickness. BMC Infectious Diseases 8, 16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Checchi, F., Cox, A. P., Chappuis, F., Priotto, G., Chandramohan, D. and Haydon, D. T. (2012). Prevalence and under-detection of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis during mass screening sessions in Uganda and Sudan. Parasites and Vectors 5, 157.Google Scholar
Cordon-Obras, C., Berzosa, P., Ndong-Mabale, N., Bobuakasi, L., Buatiche, J. N., Ndongo-Asumu, P., Benito, A. and Cano, J. (2009). Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in domestic livestock of Kogo and Mbini foci (Equatorial Guinea). Tropical Medicine and International Health 14, 535–541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duke, H. L. (1931). Trypanosoma gambiense in monkeys and ruminants; prolonged infection, immunity, and superinfection. Parasitology 23, 325–345.Google Scholar
Esterhuizen, J., Rayaisse, J. B., Tirados, I., Mpiana, S., Solano, P., Vale, G. A., Lehane, M. J. and Torr, S. J. (2011). Improving the cost-effectiveness of visual devices for the control of riverine tsetse flies, the major vectors of human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e1257.Google Scholar
Fèvre, E. M., Coleman, P. G., Odiit, M., Magona, J. W., Welburn, S. C. and Woolhouse, M. E. J. (2001). The origins of a new Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness outbreak in eastern Uganda. Lancet 358, 625–628.Google Scholar
Fèvre, E. M., Coleman, P. G., Welburn, S. C. and Maudlin, I. (2004). Reanalyzing the 1900–1920 sleeping sickness epidemic in Uganda. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10, 567–573.Google Scholar
Funk, S., Nishiura, H., Heesterbeek, H., Edmunds, W. J. and Checchi, F. (2013). Identifying transmission cycles at the human–animal interface: the role of animal reservoirs in maintaining Gambiense human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Computational Biology 9, e1002855. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002855.Google Scholar
Hargrove, J. W. (2002). Tsetse Eradication: Sufficiency, Necessity and Desirability. DFID Animal Health Programme. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.Google Scholar
Hide, G. (1999). History of sleeping sickness in East Africa. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 12, 112–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hide, G., Tait, A., Maudlin, I. and Welburn, S. C. (1996). The origins, dynamics and generation of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense epidemics in East Africa. Parasitology Today 12, 50–55.Google Scholar
Hopkins, D. R. (2013). Disease eradication. New England Journal of Medicine 368, 54–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, R. T., Nare, B., Wring, S. A., Orr, M. D., Chen, D., Sligar, J. M., Jenks, M. X., Noe, R. A., Bowling, T. S., Mercer, L. T., Rewerts, C., Gaukel, E., Owens, J., Parham, R., Randolph, R., Beaudet, B., Bacchi, C. J., Yarlett, N., Plattner, J. J., Freund, Y., Ding, C., Akama, T., Zhang, Y.-K., Brun, R., Kaiser, M., Scandale, I. and Don, R. (2011). SCYX-7158, an orally-active benzoxaborole for the treatment of stage 2 human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e1151. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001151.Google Scholar
Jamonneau, V., Bucheton, B., Kabore, J., Ilboudo, H., Camara, O., Courtin, F., Solano, P., Kaba, D., Kambire, R., Lingue, K., Camara, M., Baelmans, R., Lejon, V. and Büscher, P. (2010). Revisiting the immune trypanolysis test to optimize epidemiological surveillance and control of sleeping sickness in West Africa. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4, e917. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jamonneau, V., Ilboudo, H., Kabore, J., Kaba, D., Koffi, M., Solano, P., Garcia, A., Courtin, D., Laveissière, C., Lingue, K., Büscher, P. and Bucheton, B. (2012). Untreated human infections by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense are not 100% fatal. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6, e1691. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jelinek, T., Bisoffi, Z., Bonazzi, L., van Thiel, P., Bronner, U., de Frey, A., Gundersen, S. G., McWhinney, P., Ripamonti, D. and European Network on Imported Infectious Disease Surveillance (2002). Cluster of African trypanosomiasis in travellers to Tanzanian national parks. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8, 634–635. doi: 10.3201/eid0806.010432.Google Scholar
Kaare, M. T., Picozzi, K., Mlengeya, T., Fèvre, E. M., Mellau, L. S., Mtambo, M. M., Cleaveland, S. and Welburn, S. C. (2007). Sleeping sickness – a re-emerging disease in the Serengeti? Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 5, 117–124.Google Scholar
Kennedy, P. G. (2008). The continuing problem of human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Annals of Neurology 64, 116–126.Google Scholar
Lutumba, P., Makieya, E., Shaw, A., Meheus, F. and Boelaert, M. (2007). Human African trypanosomiasis in a rural community, Democratic Republic of Congo. Emerging Infectious Diseases 13, 248–254.Google Scholar
Makumyaviri, A., Mehlitz, D., Kageruka, P., Kazyumba, G. L. and Molisho, D. (1989). Animal reservoir hosts of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Zaire: trypanosome infections in two foci in Bas-Zaire. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 40, 258–262.Google ScholarPubMed
Maurice, J. (2013). New WHO plan targets the demise of sleeping sickness. Lancet 381, 13–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molyneux, D. H. (2001). Sterile insect release and trypanosomiasis control: a plea for realism. Trends in Parasitology 17, 413–414.Google Scholar
Morris, K. R. S. (1959). The epidemiology of sleeping sickness in East Africa. I. A sleeping sickness outbreak in Uganda in 1957. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 53, 384–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mumba, D., Bohorquez, E., Messina, J., Kande, V., Taylor, S. M., Tshefu, A. K., Muwonga, J., Kashamuka, M. M., Emch, M., Tidwell, R., Büscher, P. and Meshnick, S. R. (2011). Prevalence of human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e1246. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001246.Google Scholar
Njiokou, F., Laveissiere, C., Simo, G., Nkinin, S., Grébaut, P., Cuny, G. and Herder, S. (2006). Wild fauna as a probable animal reservoir for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Cameroon. Infection Genetics Evolution 6, 147–153.Google Scholar
Njiokou, F., Nimpaye, H., Simo, G., Njitchouang, G. R., Asonganyi, T., Cuny, G. and Herder, S. (2010). Domestic animals as potential reservoir hosts of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in sleeping sickness foci in Cameroon. Parasite 17, 61–66.Google Scholar
Organization of African Unity (2001). Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC). Enhancing Africa's Prosperity. Plan of action. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Google Scholar
Robays, J., Bilengue, M. C. C., Van der Stuyft, P. and Boelaert, M. (2004). The effectiveness of active population screening and treatment for sleeping sickness control in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Tropical Medicine and International Health 9, 542–550. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01240.x.Google Scholar
Selby, R., Bardosh, K., Picozzi, K., Waiswa, C. and Welburn, S. C. (2013). Cattle movements and trypanosomes: restocking efforts and the spread of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness in post-conflict Uganda. Parasites and Vectors 6, 281.Google Scholar
Simarro, P. P., Franco, J. R., Ndongo, P., Nguema, E., Louis, F. J. and Jannin, J. (2006). The elimination of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness in the focus of Luba, Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. Tropical Medicine and International Health 11, 36–46.Google Scholar
Simarro, P. P., Jannin, J. and Cattand, P. (2008). Eliminating human African trypanosomiasis: where do we stand and what comes next? PLoS Medicine 5, 174–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simarro, P. P., Cecchi, G., Paone, M., Franco, J. R., Diarra, A., Ruiz, J. A., Fèvre, E. M., Courtin, F., Mattioli, R. C. and Jannin, J. G. (2010). The atlas of human African trypanosomiasis: a contribution to global mapping of neglected tropical diseases. International Journal of Health Geographics 9, 57.Google Scholar
Simarro, P. P., Diarra, A., Postigo, J. A. R., Franco, J. R. and Jannin, J. G. (2011). The human African trypanosomiasis control and surveillance programme of the World Health Organization 2000–2009: the way forward. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e1007. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001007.Google Scholar
Simarro, P. P., Cecchi, G., Franco, J. R., Paone, M., Diarra, A., Ruiz-Postigo, J. A., Fèvre, E. M., Mattioli, R. C. and Jannin, J. G. (2012). Estimating and mapping the population at risk of sleeping sickness. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6, e1859. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001859.Google Scholar
Simarro, P. P., Franco, J. R., Diarra, A., Ruiz-Postigo, J. A. and Jannin, J. G. (2013 a). Diversity of human African trypanosomiasis epidemiological settings requires fine-tuning control strategies to facilitate disease elimination. Research and Reports in Tropical Medicine 4, 1–6.Google Scholar
Simarro, P. P., Cecchi, G., Franco, J. R., Paone, M., Diarra, A., Ruiz-Postigo, J. A., Mattioli, R. C. and Jannin, J. G. (2013 b). Mapping the capacities of fixed health facilities to cover people at risk of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis. International Journal of Health Geographics (in press).Google Scholar
Solano, P., Torr, S. J. and Lehane, M. (2013). Is vector control needed to eliminate gambiense human African trypanosomiasis? Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 3, 33. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00033.Google Scholar
Steverding, D. (2008). The history of African trypanosomiasis. Parasites and Vectors 1, 3. doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-1-3.Google Scholar
Torreele, E., Bourdin Trunz, B., Tweats, D., Kaiser, M., Brun, R., Mazué, G., Bray, M. A. and Pécoul, B. (2010). Fexinidazole – a new oral nitroimidazole drug candidate entering clinical development for the treatment of sleeping sickness. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4, e923. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000923.Google Scholar
Van Meirvenne, N., Magnus, E. and Buscher, P. (1995). Evaluation of variant specific trypanolysis tests for serodiagnosis of human infections with Trypanosoma brucei gambiense . Acta Tropica 60, 189–199.Google Scholar
Welburn, S. C. and Maudlin, I. (2012). Priorities for the elimination of sleeping sickness. Advances in Parasitology 79, 299–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welburn, S. C., Maudlin, I. and Simarro, P. P. (2009). Controlling sleeping sickness – a review. Parasitology 136, 1943–1949. doi: 10.1017/S0031182009006416.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1986). Epidemiology and Control of African Trypanosomiasis. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. WHO Technical Report Series. No 739. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1997). 50th World Health Assembly Resolutions. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/mediacentre/WHA_50.36_Eng.pdf.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1998). Control and Surveillance of African Trypanosomiasis. WHO Technical Report Series. No 881. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2000). Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_CDS_CSR_ISR_2000.1.pdf.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2003). 56th World Health Assembly Resolutions. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/mediacentre/WHA_56.7_Eng.pdf.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2004). 57th World Health Assembly Resolutions. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/mediacentre/WHA_57.2_Eng.pdf.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2006). Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness): epidemiological update. Weekly Epidemiological Record 81, 71–80.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2012 a). Accelerating Work to Overcome the Global Impact of Neglected Tropical Diseases – A Roadmap for Implementation. WHO/HTM/NTD/ 2012.1. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2012 b). Report of a WHO Meeting on Elimination of African Trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma brucei gambiense). Geneva, 3–5 December 2012. WHO/HTM/NTD/IDM 2013.4. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/79689/1/WHO_HTM_NTD_IDM_2013.4_eng.pdf.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2013 a). London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/London_Declaration_NTDs.pdf.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2013 b). 66th World Health Assembly Resolutions. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/mediacentre/WHA_66.12_Eng.pdf.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2013 c). Control and Surveillance of African Trypanosomiasis. WHO Technical Report Series. No 984. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar