Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-18T11:07:12.832Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Cryptosporidium species in humans and animals: current understanding and research needs

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 August 2014

UNA RYAN ,
RONALD FAYER  and
LIHUA XIAO
UNA RYAN*
Affiliation:
School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150 Australia
RONALD FAYER
Affiliation:
Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA
LIHUA XIAO
Affiliation:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
*
* Corresponding author: School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Cryptosporidium is increasingly recognized as one of the major causes of moderate to severe diarrhoea in developing countries. With treatment options limited, control relies on knowledge of the biology and transmission of the members of the genus responsible for disease. Currently, 26 species are recognized as valid on the basis of morphological, biological and molecular data. Of the nearly 20 Cryptosporidium species and genotypes that have been reported in humans, Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum are responsible for the majority of infections. Livestock, particularly cattle, are one of the most important reservoirs of zoonotic infections. Domesticated and wild animals can each be infected with several Cryptosporidium species or genotypes that have only a narrow host range and therefore have no major public health significance. Recent advances in next-generation sequencing techniques will significantly improve our understanding of the taxonomy and transmission of Cryptosporidium species, and the investigation of outbreaks and monitoring of emerging and virulent subtypes. Important research gaps remain including a lack of subtyping tools for many Cryptosporidium species of public and veterinary health importance, and poor understanding of the genetic determinants of host specificity of Cryptosporidium species and impact of climate change on the transmission of Cryptosporidium.

Keywords

Cryptosporidiumtaxonomyepidemiologyspeciesgenotypesubtype
Type
Review Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 141 , Issue 13 , November 2014 , pp. 1667 - 1685
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abal-Fabeiro, J. L., Maside, X., Bello, X., Llovo, J. and Bartolomé, C. (2013). Multilocus patterns of genetic variation across Cryptosporidium species suggest balancing selection at the gp60 locus. Molecular Ecology 22, 4723–4732.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abd El Kader, N. M., Blanco, M. A., Ali-Tammam, M., Abd El Ghaffar Ael, R., Osman, A., El Sheikh, N., Rubio, J. M. and de Fuentes, I. (2012). Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis in human patients in Cairo, Egypt. Parasitology Research 110, 161–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abeywardena, H., Jex, A. R., Nolan, M. J., Haydon, S. R., Stevens, M. A., McAnulty, R. W. and Gasser, R. B. (2012). Genetic characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from dairy calves: discovery of species/genotypes consistent with those found in humans. Infection Genetics and Evolution 12, 1984–1993.Google Scholar
Abeywardena, H., Jex, A. R., Koehler, A. V., Rajapakse, R. J., Udayawarna, K., Haydon, S. R., Stevens, M. A. and Gasser, R. B. (2014). First molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from bovines (Bos taurus and Bubalus bubalis) in Sri Lanka: unexpected absence of C. parvum from pre-weaned calves. Parasites and Vectors 7, 75.Google Scholar
Adamu, H., Petros, B., Zhang, G., Kassa, H., Amer, S., Ye, J., Feng, Y. and Xiao, L. (2014). Distribution and clinical manifestations of Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in HIV/AIDS patients in Ethiopia. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 8, e2831.Google Scholar
Agholi, M., Hatam, G. R. and Motazedian, M. H. (2013). HIV/AIDS-associated opportunistic protozoal diarrhea. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 29, 35–41.Google Scholar
Alvarez-Pellitero, P. and Sitja-Bobadilla, A. (2002). Cryptosporidium molnari n. sp. (Apicomplexa:Cryptosporidiidae) infecting two marine fish species, Sparus aurata L. and Dicentrarchus labrax L. International Journal of Parasitology 32, 1007–1021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alvarez-Pellitero, P., Quiroga, M. I., Sitja-Bobadilla, A., Redondo, M. J., Palenzuela, O., Padros, F., Vazquez, S. and Nieto, J. M. (2004). Cryptosporidium scophthalmi n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from cultured turbot Scophthalmus maximus. Light and electron microscope description and histopathological study. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 62, 133–145.Google Scholar
Amer, S., Honma, H., Ikarashi, M., Oishi, R., Endo, M., Otawa, K. and Nakai, Y. (2009). The first detection of Cryptosporidium deer-like genotype in cattle in Japan. Parasitology Research 104, 745–752.Google Scholar
Amer, S., Harfoush, M. and He, H. (2010). Molecular and phylogenetic analyses of Cryptosporidium SPP from dairy cattle in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society for Parasitology 40, 349–366.Google ScholarPubMed
Amer, S., Zidan, S., Adamu, H., Ye, J., Roellig, D., Xiao, L. and Feng, Y. (2013). Prevalence and characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in dairy cattle in Nile River delta provinces, Egypt. Experimental Parasitology 135, 518–523.Google Scholar
Anderson, D. E., Duszynski, D. W. and Marquardt, W. C. (1968). Three new coccidia (Protozoa:Telosporea) from kingsnakes, Lampropeltis spp. in Illinois, with a redescription of Eimeria zamensis Phisaux, 1921. Journal of Parasitology 54, 577–581.Google Scholar
ANOFEL Cryptosporidium National Network (2010). Laboratory-based surveillance for Cryptosporidium in France, 2006–2009. Euro Surveillance 15, 19642.Google Scholar
Anonymous (2010). Annual epidemiological report on communicable diseases in Europe, revised edition 2009. European Center for Disease Prevention and Control. http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/0910_SUR_Annual_Epidemiological_Report_on_Communicable_Diseases_in_Europe.pdf#page=101.Google Scholar
Arcay-de-Peraza, L. and Bastardo-de-San-Jose, T. (1969). Cryptosporidium ameivae sp. nov. (Coccidia, Cryptosporidiidae) del intestino delgado de Ameiva ameiva de Venezuela. Acta Cientifica Venezolana 20, 125 [conf. abstract].Google Scholar
Asano, Y., Karasudani, T., Okuyama, M., Takami, S., Oseto, M., Inouye, H., Yamamoto, K., Aokage, J., Saiki, N., Fujiwara, M., Shiraishi, M., Uchida, K., Saiki, H., Suzuki, M., Yamamoto, T., Udaka, M., Kan, K., Matsuura, S. and Kimura, M. (2006). An outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with Cryptosporidium meleagridis among high school students of dormitory in Ehime, Japan. Annual Report of Ehime Prefecture Institute of Public Health and Environmental Science 9, 21–25.Google Scholar
Baldursson, S. and Karanis, P. (2011). Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: review of worldwide outbreaks – an update 2004–2010. Water Research 45, 6603–6614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, I. K. and Carbonnell, P. L. (1974). Cryptosporidium agni sp.n. from lambs, and Cryptosporidium bovis sp.n. from a calf, with observations on the oocyst. Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde 44, 289–298.Google Scholar
Bass, A. L., Wallace, C. C., Yund, P. O. and Ford, T. E. (2012). Detection of Cryptosporidium sp. in two new seal species, Phoca vitulina and Cystophora cristata, and a novel Cryptosporidium genotype in a third seal species, Pagophilus groenlandicus, from the Gulf of Maine. Journal of Parasitology 98, 316–322.Google Scholar
Berrilli, F., D'Alfonso, R., Giangaspero, A., Marangi, M., Brandonisio, O., Kabore, Y., Gle, C., Cianfanelli, C., Lauro, R. and Di Cave, D. (2012). Giardia duodenalis genotypes and Cryptosporidium species in humans and domestic animals in Cote d'Ivoire: occurrence and evidence for environmental contamination. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 106, 191–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bird, R. G. (1981). Parasitological topics, a presentation volume to P. C. Garnham, FRS on the occasion of his 80th birthday. In Protozoa and Viruses. Human Cryptosporidiosis and Concomitant Viral Enteritis (ed. Canning, E. U.), Vol. 1, pp. 39–47. Society for Protozoology Special Publication, Lawrence, KS, USA.Google Scholar
Bornay-Llinares, F. J., da Silva, A. J., Mourna, I. N., Myjap, P., Pietkiewicz, H., Kruminis-Lozowska, W., Graczak, T. K. and Pieniazek, N. J. (1999). Identification of Cryptosporidium felis in a cow by morphologic and molecular methods. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65, 1455–1458.Google Scholar
Budu-Amoako, E., Greenwood, S. J., Dixon, B. R., Barkema, H. W., Hurnik, D., Estey, C. and McClure, J. T. (2011). Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in pigs on Prince Edward Island, Canada. Veterinary Parasitology 184, 18–24.Google Scholar
Budu-Amoako, E., Greenwood, S. J., Dixon, B. R., Sweet, L., Ang, L., Barkema, H. W. and McClure, J. T. (2012 a). Molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in humans on Prince Edward Island, Canada: evidence of zoonotic transmission from cattle. Zoonoses and Public Health 59, 424–433.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Budu-Amoako, E., Greenwood, S. J., Dixon, B. R., Barkema, H. W. and McClure, J. T. (2012 b). Giardia and Cryptosporidium on dairy farms and the role these farms may play in contaminating water sources in Prince Edward Island, Canada. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 26, 668–73.Google Scholar
Burnet, J. B., Ogorzaly, L., Tissier, A., Penny, C. and Cauchie, H. M. (2012). Novel quantitative TaqMan real-time PCR assays for detection of Cryptosporidium at the genus level and genotyping of major human and cattle-infecting species. Journal of Applied Microbiology 114, 1211–1222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cacciò, S. M., Sannella, A. R., Mariano, V., Valentini, S., Berti, F., Tosini, F. and Pozio, E. (2013). A rare Cryptosporidium parvum genotype associated with infection of lambs and zoonotic transmission in Italy. Veterinary Parasitology 191, 128–131.Google Scholar
Cama, V., Gilman, R. H., Vivar, A., Ticona, E., Ortega, Y., Bern, C. and Xiao, L. (2006). Mixed Cryptosporidium infections and HIV. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12, 1025–1028.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cama, V. A., Ross, J. M., Crawford, S., Kawai, V., Chavez-Valdez, R., Vargas, D., Vivar, A., Ticona, E., Navincopa, M., Williamson, J., Ortega, Y., Gilman, R. H., Bern, C. and Xiao, L. (2007). Differences in clinical manifestations among Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in HIV-infected persons. Journal of Infectious Diseases 196, 684–691.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cama, V. A., Bern, C., Roberts, J., Cabrera, L., Sterling, C. R., Ortega, Y., Gilman, R. H. and Xiao, L. (2008). Cryptosporidium species and subtypes and clinical manifestations in children, Peru. Emerging Infectious Diseases 14, 1567–1574.Google Scholar
Chalmers, R. M., Ferguson, C., Cacciò, S., Gasser, R. B., Abs EL-Osta, Y. G., Heijnen, L., Xiao, L., Elwin, K., Hadfield, S., Sinclair, M. and Stevens, M. (2005). Direct comparison of selected methods for genetic categorisation of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis species. International Journal for Parasitology 35, 397–410.Google Scholar
Chalmers, R. M., Elwin, K., Thomas, A. L., Guy, E. C. and Mason, B. (2009 a). Long-term Cryptosporidium typing reveals the aetiology and species-specific epidemiology of human cryptosporidiosis in England and Wales, 2000 to 2003. Euro Surveillance 14, pii: 19086.Google Scholar
Chalmers, R. M., Robinson, G., Elwin, K., Hadfield, S. J., Xiao, L., Ryan, U., Modha, D. and Mallaghan, C. (2009 b). Cryptosporidium sp. rabbit genotype, a newly identified human pathogen. Emerging Infectious Diseases 15, 829–830.Google Scholar
Chalmers, R. M., Smith, R., Elwin, K., Clifton-Hadley, F. A. and Giles, M. (2011 a). Epidemiology of anthroponotic and zoonotic human cryptosporidiosis in England and Wales, 2004–2006. Epidemiology and Infection 139, 700–712.Google Scholar
Chalmers, R. M., Smith, R. P., Hadfield, S. J., Elwin, K. and Giles, M. (2011 b). Zoonotic linkage and variation in Cryptosporidium parvum from patients in the United Kingdom. Parasitology Research 108, 1321–1325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chappell, C. L., Okhuysen, P. C., Langer-Curry, R., Widmer, G., Akiyoshi, D. E., Tanriverdi, S. and Tzipori, S. (2006). Cryptosporidium hominis: experimental challenge of healthy adults. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75, 851–857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, Z., Mi, R., Yu, H., Shi, Y., Huang, Y., Chen, Y., Zhou, P., Cai, Y. and Lin, J. (2011). Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in pigs in Shanghai, China. Veterinary Parasitology 181, 113–119.Google Scholar
Cinque, K., Stevens, M. A., Haydon, S. R., Jex, A. R., Gasser, R. B. and Campbell, B. E. (2008). Investigating public health impacts of deer in a protected drinking water supply watershed. Water Science and Technology 58, 127–132.Google Scholar
Connelly, L., Craig, B. H., Jones, B. and Alexander, C. L. (2013). Genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. within a remote population of Soay Sheep on St. Kilda Islands, Scotland. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 79, 2240–2246.Google Scholar
Current, W. L., Upton, S. J. and Haynes, T. B. (1986). The life cycle of Cryptosporidium baileyi n. sp. (Apicomplexa, Cryptosporidiidae) infecting chickens. Journal of Protozoology 33, 289–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Del Chierico, F., Onori, M., Di Bella, S., Bordi, E., Petrosillo, N., Menichella, D., Caccio, S. M., Callea, F. and Putignani, L. (2011). Cases of cryptosporidiosis co-infections in AIDS patients: a correlation between clinical presentation and GP60 subgenotype lineages from aged formalin-fixed stool samples. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 105, 339–349.Google Scholar
De Waele, V., Van den Broeck, F., Huyse, T., McGrath, G., Higgins, I., Speybroeck, N., Berzano, M., Raleigh, P., Mulcahy, G. M. and Murphy, T. M. (2013). Panmictic structure of the Cryptosporidium parvum population in Irish calves: influence of prevalence and host movement. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 79, 2534–2541.Google Scholar
Diaz, P., Quilez, J., Chalmers, R. M., Panadero, R., Lopez, C., Sanchez-Acedo, C., Morrondo, P. and Diez-Banos, P. (2010 a). Genotype and subtype analysis of Cryptosporidium isolates from calves and lambs in Galicia (NW Spain). Parasitology 137, 1187–1193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diaz, P., Quilez, J., Robinson, G., Chalmers, R. M., Diez-Banos, P. and Morrondo, P. (2010 b). Identification of Cryptosporidium xiaoi in diarrhoeic goat kids (Capra hircus) in Spain. Veterinary Parasitology 172, 132–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diaz, P., Hadfield, S. J., Quilez, J., Soilan, M., Lopez, C., Panadero, R., Diez-Banos, P., Morrondo, P. and Chalmers, R. M. (2012). Assessment of three methods for multilocus fragment typing of Cryptosporidium parvum from domestic ruminants in north west Spain. Veterinary Parasitology 186, 188–195.Google Scholar
Dillingham, R. A., Lima, A. A. and Guerrant, R. L. (2002). Cryptosporidiosis: epidemiology and impact. Microbes and Infection 4, 1059–1066.Google Scholar
Drumo, R., Widmer, G., Morrison, L. J., Tait, A., Grelloni, V., D'Avino, N., Pozio, E. and Caccio, S. M. (2012). Evidence of host-associated populations of Cryptosporidium parvum in Italy. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78, 3523–3529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duszynski, D. W. (1969). Two new coccidia (Protozoa: Eimeriidae) from Costa Rican lizards with a review of the Eimeria from lizards. Journal of Protozoology 16, 581–585.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elwin, K., Hadfield, S. J., Robinson, G. and Chalmers, R. M. (2012 a). The epidemiology of sporadic human infections with unusual cryptosporidia detected during routine typing in England and Wales, 2000–2008. Epidemiology and Infection 140, 673–683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elwin, K., Hadfield, S. J., Robinson, G., Crouch, N. D. and Chalmers, R. M. (2012 b). Cryptosporidium viatorum n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) among travellers returning to Great Britain from the Indian subcontinent, 2007–2011. International Journal of Parasitology 42, 675–682.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farzan, A., Parrington, L., Coklin, T., Cook, A., Pintar, K., Pollari, F., Friendship, R., Farber, J. and Dixon, B. (2011). Detection and characterization of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. on swine farms in Ontario, Canada. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease 8, 1207–1213.Google Scholar
Fayer, R. and Santín, M. (2009). Cryptosporidium xiaoi n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in sheep (Ovis aries). Veterinary Parasitology 164, 192–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fayer, R., Speer, C. A. and Dubey, J. P. (1997). The general biology of Cryptosporidium . In Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis (ed. Fayer, R.), pp. 1–41. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA.Google Scholar
Fayer, R., Trout, J. M., Xiao, L., Morgan, U. M., Lal, A. A. and Dubey, J. P. (2001). Cryptosporidium canis n. sp. from domestic dogs. Journal of Parasitology 87, 1415–1422.Google Scholar
Fayer, R., Santin, M. and Xiao, L. (2005). Cryptosporidium bovis n. sp. (Apicomplex: Cryptosporidiidae) in cattle (Bos taurus). Journal of Parasitology 91, 624–629.Google Scholar
Fayer, R., Santin, M. and Trout, J. M. (2008). Cryptosporidium ryanae n. sp. (Apicomplex: Cryptosporidiidae) in cattle (Bos taurus). Veterinary Parasitology 156, 191–190.Google Scholar
Fayer, R., Santin, M. and Macarisin, D. (2010). Cryptosporidium ubiquitum n. sp. in animals and humans. Veterinary Parasitology 172, 23–32.Google Scholar
Feng, Y. (2010). Cryptosporidium in wild placental mammals. Experimental Parasitology 124, 128–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feng, Y., Ortega, Y., He, G., Das, P., Xu, M., Zhang, X., Fayer, R., Gatei, W., Cama, V. and Xiao, L. (2007). Wide geographic distribution of Cryptosporidium bovis and the deer-like genotype in bovines. Veterinary Parasitology 144, 1–9.Google Scholar
Feng, Y., Dearen, T., Cama, V. and Xiao, L. (2009). 90-kilodalton heat shock protein (hsp90) as a target for genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. known to infect humans. Eukaryotic Cell 8, 478–482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feng, Y., Lal, A. A., Li, N. and Xiao, L. (2011 a). Subtypes of Cryptosporidium spp. in mice and other small mammals. Experimental Parasitology 127, 238–242.Google Scholar
Feng, Y., Yang, W., Ryan, U., Zhang, L., Kvac, M., Koudela, B., Modry, D., Li, N., Fayer, R. and Xiao, L. (2011 b). Development of a multilocus sequence tool for typing Cryptosporidium muris and Cryptosporidium andersoni . Journal of Clinical Microbiology 49, 34–41.Google Scholar
Feng, Y., Zhao, X., Chen, J., Jin, W., Zhou, X., Li, N., Wang, L. and Xiao, L. (2011 c). Occurrence, source, and human infection potential of Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. in source and tap water in Shanghai, China. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77, 3609–3616.Google Scholar
Feng, Y., Wang, L., Duan, L., Gomez-Puerta, L. A., Zhang, L., Zhao, X., Hu, J., Zhang, N. and Xiao, L. (2012). Extended outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in a pediatric hospital, China. Emerging Infectious Diseases 18, 312–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feng, Y., Torres, E., Li, N., Wang, L., Bowman, D. and Xiao, L. (2013). Population genetic characterisation of dominant Cryptosporidium parvum subtype IIaA15G2R1. International Journal of Parasitology 43, 1141–1147.Google Scholar
Feng, Y., Tiao, N., Li, N., Hlavsa, M. and Xiao, L. (2014). Multilocus sequence typing of an emerging Cryptosporidium hominis subtype in the United States. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52, 524–530.Google Scholar
Fiuza, V. R., Cosendey, R. I., Frazão-Teixeira, E., Santín, M., Fayer, R. and de Oliveira, F. C. (2011 a). Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium in Brazilian sheep. Veterinary Parasitology 175, 360–362.Google Scholar
Fiuza, V. R., Gallo, S. S., Frazão-Teixeira, E., Santín, M., Fayer, R. and Oliveira, F. C. (2011 b). Cryptosporidium pig genotype II diagnosed in pigs from the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Journal of Parasitology 97, 146–147.Google Scholar
Foo, C., Farrell, J., Boxell, A., Robertson, I. and Ryan, U. M. (2007). Novel Cryptosporidium genotype in wild Australian mice (Mus domesticus). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73, 7693–7696.Google Scholar
García-Presedo, I., Pedraza-Díaz, S., González-Warleta, M., Mezo, M., Gómez-Bautista, M., Ortega-Mora, L. M. and Castro-Hermida, J. A. (2013 a). Presence of Cryptosporidium scrofarum, C. suis and C. parvum subtypes IIaA16G2R1 and IIaA13G1R1 in Eurasian wild boars (Sus scrofa). Veterinary Parasitology 196, 497–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García-Presedo, I., Pedraza-Díaz, S., González-Warleta, M., Mezo, M., Gómez-Bautista, M., Ortega-Mora, L. M. and Castro-Hermida, J. A. (2013 b). The first report of Cryptosporidium bovis, C. ryanae and Giardia duodenalis sub-assemblage A-II in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Spain. Veterinary Parasitology 197, 658–664.Google Scholar
Gatei, W., Wamae, C. N., Mbae, C., Waruru, A., Mulinge, E., Waithera, T., Gatika, S. M., Kamwati, S. K., Revathi, G. and Hart, C. A. (2006). Cryptosporidiosis: prevalence, genotype analysis, and symptoms associated with infections in children in Kenya. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75, 78–82.Google Scholar
Gatei, W., Das, P., Dutta, P., Sen, A., Cama, V., Lal, A. A. and Xiao, L. (2007). Multilocus sequence typing and genetic structure of Cryptosporidium hominis from children in Kolkata, India. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 7, 197–205.Google Scholar
Geurden, T., Thomas, P., Casaert, S., Vercruysse, J. and Claerebout, E. (2008). Prevalence and molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in lambs and goat kids in Belgium. Veterinary Parasitology 155, 142–145.Google Scholar
Giles, M., Chalmers, R., Pritchard, G., Elwin, K., Mueller-Doblies, D. and Clifton-Hadley, F. (2009). Cryptosporidium hominis in a goat and a sheep in the UK. Veterinary Record 164, 24–25.Google Scholar
Goh, S., Reacher, M., Casemore, D. P., Verlander, N. Q., Chalmers, R., Knowles, M., Williams, J., Osborn, K. and Richards, S. (2004). Sporadic cryptosporidiosis, North Cumbria, England, 1996–2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10, 1007–1015.Google Scholar
Goma, F. Y., Geurden, T., Siwila, J., Phiri, I. G. K., Claerebout, E. and Vercruysse, J. (2007). The prevalence and molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium spp. in small ruminants in Zambia. Small Ruminant Research 72, 77–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grinberg, A., Biggs, P. J., Dukkipati, V. S. and George, T. T. (2013). Extensive intra-host genetic diversity uncovered in Cryptosporidium parvum using next generation sequencing. Infection Genetics and Evolution 15, 18–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadfield, S. J., Robinson, G., Elwin, K. and Chalmers, R. M. (2011). Detection and differentiation of Cryptosporidium spp. in human clinical samples using real-time PCR. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 49, 918–924.Google Scholar
Helmy, Y. A., Krücken, J., Nöckler, K., von Samson-Himmelstjerna, G. and Zessin, K. H. (2013). Molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium in livestock animals and humans in the Ismailia province of Egypt. Veterinary Parasitology 193, 15–24.Google Scholar
Herges, G. R., Widmer, G., Clark, M. E., Khan, E., Giddings, C. W., Brewer, M. and McEvoy, J. M. (2012). Evidence that Cryptosporidium parvum populations are panmictic and unstructured in the upper midwest of the United States. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78, 8096–8101.Google Scholar
Hoover, D. M., Hoerr, F. J., Carlton, W. W., Hinsman, E. J. and Ferguson, H. W. (1981). Enteric cryptosporidiosis in a naso tang, Naso lituratus Block and Schneider. Journal of Fish Disease 4, 425–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunter, P. R., Hughes, S., Woodhouse, S., Syed, Q., Verlander, N. Q., Chalmers, R. M., Morgan, K., Nichols, G., Beeching, N. and Osborn, K. (2004). Sporadic cryptosporidiosis case-control study with genotyping. Emerging Infectious Disease 10, 1241–1249.Google Scholar
Imre, K., Lobo, L. M., Matos, O., Popescu, C., Genchi, C. and Dărăbuş, G. (2011). Molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium isolates from pre-weaned calves in Romania: is there an actual risk of zoonotic infections? Veterinary Parasitology 181, 321–324.Google Scholar
Inman, L. R. and Takeuchi, A. (1979). Spontaneous cryptosporidiosis in an adult female rabbit. Veterinary Pathology 16, 89–95.Google Scholar
Insulander, M., Silverlas, C., Lebbad, M., Karlsson, L., Mattsson, J. G. and Svenungsson, B. (2013). Molecular epidemiology and clinical manifestations of human cryptosporidiosis in Sweden. Epidemiology and Infection 141, 1009–1020.Google Scholar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2013). Fifth Assessment Report. http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/.Google Scholar
Iseki, M. (1979). Cryptosporidium felis sp. n. (Protozoa: Eimeriorina) from the domestic cat. Japanese Journal of Parasitology 28, 285–307.Google Scholar
Jeníková, M., Němejc, K., Sak, B., Květoňová, D. and Kváč, M. (2010). New view on the age-specificity of pig Cryptosporidium by species-specific primers for distinguishing Cryptosporidium suis and Cryptosporidium pig genotype II. Veterinary Parasitology 176, 120–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, M. B., Liotta, J. L., Lucio-Forster, A. and Bowman, D. D. (2010). Concentrations, viability, and distribution of Cryptosporidium genotypes in lagoons of swine facilities in the Southern Piedmont and in coastal plain watersheds of Georgia. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76, 5757–5763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jirku, M., Valigurova, A., Koudela, B., Krzek, J., Modry, D. and Slapeta, J. (2008). New species of Cryptosporidium Tyzzer, 1907 (Apicomplexa) from amphibian host: morphology, biology, and phylogeny. Folia Parasitologica 55, 81–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J., Buddle, R., Reid, S., Armson, A. and Ryan, U. M. (2008). Prevalence of Cryptosporidium genotypes in pre and post-weaned pigs in Australia. Experimental Parasitology 119, 418–421.Google Scholar
Jothikumar, N., da Silva, A. J., Moura, I., Qvarnstrom, Y. and Hill, V. R. (2008). Detection and differentiation of Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum by dual TaqMan assays. Journal of Medical Microbiology 57, 1099–1105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, S. M., Debnath, C., Pramanik, A. K., Xiao, L., Nozaki, T. and Ganguly, S. (2010). Molecular characterization and assessment of zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium from dairy cattle in West Bengal, India. Veterinary Parasitology 171, 41–47.Google Scholar
Koinari, M., Karl, S., Ng-Hublin, J., Lymbery, A. J. and Ryan, U. M. (2013). Identification of novel and zoonotic Cryptosporidium species in fish from Papua New Guinea. Veterinary Parasitology 198, 1–9.Google Scholar
Koinari, M., Lymbery, A. J. and Ryan, U. M. (2014). Cryptosporidium species in sheep and goats from Papua New Guinea. Experimental Parasitology 41, 134–137.Google Scholar
Kotloff, K. L., Nataro, J. P., Blackwelder, W. C., Nasrin, D., Farag, T. H., Panchalingam, S., Wu, Y., Sow, S. O., Sur, D., Breiman, R. F., Faruque, A. S., Zaidi, A. K., Saha, D., Alonso, P. L., Tamboura, B., Sanogo, D., Onwuchekwa, U., Manna, B., Ramamurthy, T., Kanungo, S., Ochieng, J. B., Omore, R., Oundo, J. O., Hossain, A., Das, S. K., Ahmed, S., Qureshi, S., Quadri, F., Adegbola, R. A., Antonio, M., Hossain, M. J., Akinsola, A., Mandomando, I., Nhampossa, T., Acacio, S., Biswas, K., O'Reilly, C. E., Mintz, E. D., Berkeley, L. Y., Muhsen, K., Sommerfelt, H., Robins-Browne, R. M. and Levine, M. M. (2013). Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): a prospective, case-control study. Lancet 382, 209–222.Google Scholar
Koudela, B. and Modry, D. (1998). New species of Cryptosporidium (Apicomplexa, Cryptosporidiidae) from lizards. Folia Parasitologia 45, 93–100.Google Scholar
Kváč, M., Hanzlíková, D., Sak, B. and Kvetonová, D. (2009 a). Prevalence and age-related infection of Cryptosporidium suis, C. muris and Cryptosporidium pig genotype II in pigs on a farm complex in the Czech Republic. Veterinary Parasitology 160, 319–322.Google Scholar
Kváč, M., Kvetonová, D., Sak, B. and Ditrich, O. (2009 b). Cryptosporidium pig genotype II in immunocompetent man. Emerging Infectious Diseases 15, 982–983.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kváč, M., Sakova, K., Kvetonova, D., Kicia, M., Wesolowska, M., McEvoy, J. and Sak, B. (2013 a). Gastroenteritis caused by the Cryptosporidium hedgehog genotype in an immunocompetent man. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52, 347–349.Google Scholar
Kváč, M., Kestřánová, M., Pinková, M., Květoňová, D., Kalinová, J., Wagnerová, P., Kotková, M., Vítovec, J., Ditrich, O., McEvoy, J., Stenger, B. and Sak, B. (2013 b). Cryptosporidium scrofarum n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in domestic pigs (Sus scrofa). Veterinary Parasitology 191, 218–227.Google Scholar
Kváč, M., McEvoy, J., Loudová, M., Stenger, B., Sak, B., Květoňová, D., Ditrich, O., Rašková, V., Moriarty, E., Rost, M., Macholán, M. and Piálek, J. (2013 c). Coevolution of Cryptosporidium tyzzeri and the house mouse (Mus musculus). International Journal for Parasitology 43, 805–817.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kváč, M., Saková, K., Kvĕtoňová, D., Kicia, M., Wesołowska, M., McEvoy, J. and Sak, B. (2014 a). Gastroenteritis caused by the Cryptosporidium hedgehog genotype in an immunocompetent man. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52, 347–349.Google Scholar
Kváč, M., Hofmannová, L., Hlásková, L., Květoňová, D., Vítovec, J., McEvoy, J. and Sak, B. (2014 b). Cryptosporidium erinacei n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in hedgehogs. Veterinary Parasitology 201, 9–17.Google Scholar
Lalonde, L. F., Reyes, J. and Gajadhar, A. A. (2013). Application of a qPCR assay with melting curve analysis for detection and differentiation of protozoan oocysts in human fecal samples from Dominican Republic. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 89, 892–898.Google Scholar
Learmonth, J. J., Ionas, G., Ebbett, K. A. and Kwan, E. S. (2004). Genetic characterization and transmission cycles of cryptosporidium species isolated from humans in New Zealand. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70, 3973–3978.Google Scholar
Leoni, F., Amar, C., Nichols, G., Pedraza-Díaz, S. and McLauchlin, J. (2006). Genetic analysis of Cryptosporidium from 2414 humans with diarrhoea in England between 1985 and 2000. Journal of Medical Microbiology 55, 703–707.Google Scholar
Levine, N. D. (1980). Some corrections of coccidian (Apicomplexa: Protozoa) nomenclature. Journal of Parasitology 66, 830–834.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, N., Xiao, L., Cama, V. A., Ortega, Y., Gilman, R. H., Guo, M. and Feng, Y. (2013). Genetic recombination and Cryptosporidium hominis virulent subtype IbA10G2. Emerging Infectious Diseases 19, 1573–1582.Google Scholar
Li, N., Xiao, L., Alderisio, K., Elwin, K., Cebelinski, E., Chalmers, R., Santin, M., Fayer, R., Kvac, M., Ryan, U., Sak, B., Stanko, M., Guo, Y., Wang, L., Zhang, L., Cai, J., Roellig, D. and Feng, Y. (2014). Subtyping Cryptosporidium ubiquitum, a zoonotic pathogen emerging in humans. Emerging Infectious Diseases 20, 217–224.Google Scholar
Lindsay, D. S., Upton, S. J., Owens, D. S., Morgan, U. M., Mead, J. R. and Blagburn, B. L. (2000). Cryptosporidium andersoni n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from cattle, Bos taurus . Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 47, 91–85.Google Scholar
Liu, L., Johnson, H. L., Cousens, S., Perin, J., Scott, S., Lawn, J. E., Rudan, I., Campbell, H., Cibulskis, R., Li, M., Mathers, C. and Black, R. E. (2012). Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000. Lancet 379, 2151–2161.Google Scholar
Liu, H., Shen, Y., Yin, J., Yuan, Z., Jiang, Y., Xu, Y., Pan, W., Hu, Y. and Cao, J. (2014). Prevalence and genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium, Enterocytozoon, Giardia and Cyclospora in diarrheal outpatients in China. BMC Infectious Diseases 14, 25.Google Scholar
Llorente, M. T., Clavel, A., Goni, M. P., Varea, M., Seral, C., Becerril, R., Suarez, L. and Gomez-Lus, R. (2007). Genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium species from humans in Spain. Parasitology International 51, 201–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucio-Forster, A., Griffiths, J. K., Cama, V. A., Xiao, L. and Bowman, D. D. (2010). Minimal zoonotic risk of cryptosporidiosis from pet dogs and cats. Trends in Parasitology 26, 174–179.Google Scholar
Lv, C., Zhang, L., Wang, R., Jian, F., Zhang, S., Ning, C., Wang, H., Feng, C., Wang, X., Ren, X., Qi, M. and Xiao, L. (2009). Cryptosporidium spp. in wild, laboratory, and pet rodents in China: prevalence and molecular characterization. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 75, 7692–7699.Google Scholar
Mallon, M., MacLeod, A., Wastling, J., Smith, H., Reilly, B. and Tait, A. (2003). Population structures and the role of genetic exchange in the zoonotic pathogen Cryptosporidium parvum . Journal of Molecular Evolution 56, 407–417.Google Scholar
Mary, C., Chapey, E., Dutoit, E., Guyot, K., Hasseine, L., Jeddi, F., Menotti, J., Paraud, C., Pomares, C., Rabodonirina, M., Rieux, A. and Derouin, F. (2013). Multicentric evaluation of a new real-time PCR assay for quantification of Cryptosporidium sp and identification of Cryptosporidium parvum and hominis . Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51, 2556–2563.Google Scholar
Matschoulsky, S. N. (1947). Coccidia of wild birds of Buryatia: second communication. Trudy Buryat-Mongolskogo Zooveterinarnogo Instituta (Ulan-Ude) 3, 93–101 (in Russian).Google Scholar
McDonald, V. (2011). Cryptosporidiosis: host immune responses and the prospects for effective immunotherapies. Expert Reviews on Antibodies, Infection and Therapy 9, 1077–1086.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meireles, M., de Oliveira, F., Teixeira, W., Coelho, W. and Mendes, L. (2011). Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in dairy calves from the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Parasitology Research 109, 949–951.Google Scholar
Molloy, S. F., Smith, H. V., Kirwan, P., Nichols, R. A., Asaolu, S. O., Connelly, L. and Holland, C. V. (2010). Identification of a high diversity of Cryptosporidium species genotypes and subtypes in a pediatric population in Nigeria. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82, 608–613.Google Scholar
Morgan, U. M., Buddle, R., Armson, A. and Thompson, R. C. A. (1999 a). Molecular and biological characterisation of Cryptosporidium in pigs. Australian Veterinary Journal 77, 44–47.Google Scholar
Morgan, U. M., Sturdee, A. P., Singleton, G., Gomez, M. S., Gracenea, M., Torres, J., Hamilton, S. G., Woodside, D. P. and Thompson, R. C. (1999 b). The Cryptosporidium ‘mouse’ genotype is conserved across geographic areas. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 37, 1302–1305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan-Ryan, U. M., Fall, A., Ward, L. A., Hijjawi, N., Sulaiman, I., Fayer, R., Thompson, R. C. A., Olson, M., Lal, A. A. and Xiao, L. (2002). Cryptosporidium hominis n. sp. (Apicompolexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from Homo sapiens . Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 49, 433–440.Google Scholar
Morse, T. D., Nichols, R. A., Grimason, A. M., Campbell, B. M., Tembo, K. C. and Smith, H. V. (2007). Incidence of cryptosporidiosis species in paediatric patients in Malawi. Epidemiology and Infection 135, 1307–1315.Google Scholar
Mosier, D. A. and Oberst, R. D. (2000). Cryptosporidiosis. A global challenge. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 916, 102–111.Google Scholar
Muhid, A., Robertson, I., Ng, J. and Ryan, U. (2011). Prevalence of and management factors contributing to Cryptosporidium sp. infection in pre-weaned and post-weaned calves in Johor, Malaysia. Experimental Parasitology 127, 534–538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthusamy, D., Rao, S. S., Ramani, S., Monica, B., Banerjee, I., Abraham, O. C., Mathai, D. C., Primrose, B., Muliyil, J., Wanke, C. A., Ward, H. D. and Kang, G. (2006). Multilocus genotyping of Cryptosporidium sp. isolates from human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals in South India. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 44, 632–634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nazemalhosseini-Mojarad, E., Feng, Y. and Xiao, L. (2012). The importance of subtype analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in epidemiological investigations of human cryptosporidiosis in Iran and other Mideast countries. Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench 5, 67–70.Google Scholar
Němejc, K., Sak, B., Květoňová, D., Hanzal, V., Jeníková, M. and Kváč, M. (2012). The first report on Cryptosporidium suis and Cryptosporidium pig genotype II in Eurasian wild boars (Sus scrofa) (Czech Republic). Veterinary Parasitology 184, 122–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Němejc, K., Sak, B., Květoňová, D., Kernerová, N., Rost, M., Cama, V. A. and Kváč, M. (2013). Occurrence of Cryptosporidium suis and Cryptosporidium scrofarum on commercial swine farms in the Czech Republic and its associations with age and husbandry practices. Parasitology Research 112, 1143–1154.Google Scholar
Ng, J., Yang, R., Whiffin, V., Cox, P. and Ryan, U. (2011). Identification of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia genotypes infecting animals in Sydney's water catchments. Experimental Parasitology 128, 138–144.Google Scholar
Ng, J. S., Eastwood, K., Walker, B., Durrheim, D. N., Massey, P. D., Porigneaux, P., Kemp, R., McKinnon, B., Laurie, K., Miller, D., Bramley, E. and Ryan, U. (2012). Evidence of Cryptosporidium transmission between cattle and humans in northern New South Wales. Experimental Parasitology 130, 437–441.Google Scholar
Nolan, M. J., Jex, A. R., Koehler, A. V., Haydon, S. R., Stevens, M. A., Gasser, R. B. (2013). Molecular-based investigation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from animals in water catchments in southeastern Australia. Water Research 47, 1726–1740.Google Scholar
O'Connor, R. M., Wanyiri, J. W., Cevallos, A. M., Priest, J. W. and Ward, H. D. (2007). Cryptosporidium parvum glycoprotein gp40 localizes to the sporozoite surface by association with gp15. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 156, 80–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogassawara, S., Benassi, S., Larsson, C. E. and Hagiwara, M. K. (1986). Cryptosporidium curyi sp. n., in the feces of cats in the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Revista de Microbiologia 17, 346–349.Google Scholar
Okhuysen, P. C., Chappell, C. L., Crabb, J. H., Sterling, C. R. and DuPont, H. L. (1999). Virulence of three distinct Cryptosporidium parvum isolates for healthy adults. Journal of Infectious Diseases 180, 1275–1281.Google Scholar
Palenzuela, O., Alvarez-Pellitero, P. and Sitjà-Bobadilla, A. (2010). Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium molnari reveals a distinct piscine clade. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76, 7646–7649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmer, C. S., Traub, R. J., Robertson, I. D., Devlin, G., Rees, R. and Thompson, R. C. (2008). Determining the zoonotic significance of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Australian dogs and cats. Veterinary Parasitology 154, 142–147.Google Scholar
Paperna, I. and Vilenkin, M. (1996). Cryptosporidiosis in the gourami Trichogaster leeri: description of a new species and a proposal for a new genus, Piscicryptosporidium, for species infecting fish. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 27, 95–101.Google Scholar
Paperna, I., Landsberg, J. H. and Ostrovska, K. (1986). Cryptosporidia of lower vertebrates. Society of Protozoology, Abstract No. 145.Google Scholar
Park, J. H., Guk, S. M., Han, E. T., Shin, E. H., Kim, J. L. and Chai, J. Y. (2006). Genotype analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. prevalent in a rural village in Hwasun-gun, Republic of Korea. Korean Journal of Parasitology 44, 27–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pavlásek, I. (1999). Cryptosporidia: biology, diagnosis, host spectrum, specificity, and the environment. Remedia Klinicka Mikrobiologie 3, 290–301.Google Scholar
Pavlasek, I. and Ryan, U. (2008). Cryptosporidium varanii takes precedence over C. saurophilum . Experimental Parasitology 118, 434–437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pavlásek, I., Lávicková, M., Horák, P., Král, J. and Král, B. (1995). Cryptosporidium varanii n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in Emerald monitor (Varanus prasinus Schlegal, 1893) in captivity in Prague zoo. Gazella 22, 99–108.Google Scholar
Payne, P., Lancaster, L. A., Heinzman, M. and McCutchan, J. A. (1983). Identification of Cryptosporidium in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine 309, 613–614.Google ScholarPubMed
Power, M. L. (2010). Biology of Cryptosporidium from marsupial hosts. Experimental Parasitology 124, 40–44.Google Scholar
Power, M. L. and Ryan, U. M. (2008). A new species of Cryptosporidium (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus). Journal of Parasitology 94, 1114–1117.Google Scholar
Power, M. L., Cheung-Kwok-Sang, C., Slade, M. and Williamson, S. (2009). Cryptosporidium fayeri: diversity within the GP60 locus of isolates from different marsupial hosts. Experimental Parasitology 121, 219–223.Google Scholar
Proctor, S. J. and Kemp, R. L. (1974). Cryptosporidium anserinum sp. n. (Sporozoa) in a domestic goose Anser anser L., from Iowa. Journal of Protozoology 21, 664–666.Google Scholar
Quílez, J., Torres, E., Chalmers, R. M., Hadfield, S. J., Del Cacho, E. and Sánchez-Acedo, C. (2008). Cryptosporidium genotypes and subtypes in lambs and goat kids in Spain. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74, 6026–6031.Google Scholar
Quilez, J., Vergara-Castiblanco, C., Monteagudo, L., Del Cacho, E. and Sanchez-Acedo, C. (2011). Multilocus fragment typing and genetic structure of Cryptosporidium parvum isolates from diarrheic preweaned calves in Spain. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77, 7779–7786.Google Scholar
Quilez, J., Vergara-Castiblanco, C., Monteagudo, L., Del Cacho, E. and Sanchez-Acedo, C. (2013). Host-association of C. parvum populations infecting domestic ruminants in Spain. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 79, 5363–5371.Google Scholar
Raskova, V., Kvetonova, D., Sak, B., McEvoy, J., Edwinson, A., Stenger, B. and Kvac, M. (2013). Human cryptosporidiosis caused by Cryptosporidium tyzzeri and C. parvum isolates presumably transmitted from wild mice. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51, 360–362.Google Scholar
Ren, X., Zhao, J., Zhang, L., Ning, C., Jian, F., Wang, R., Lv, C., Wang, Q., Arrowood, M. J. and Xiao, L. (2012). Cryptosporidium tyzzeri n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in domestic mice (Mus musculus). Experimental Parasitology 130, 274–281.Google Scholar
Rengifo-Herrera, C., Ortega-Mora, L. M., Gómez-Bautista, M., García-Moreno, F. T., García-Párraga, D., Castro-Urda, J. and Pedraza-Díaz, S. (2011). Detection and characterization of a Cryptosporidium isolate from a southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) from the Antarctic peninsula. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77, 1524–1527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rengifo-Herrera, C., Ortega-Mora, L. M., Gómez-Bautista, M., García-Peña, F. J., García-Párraga, D. and Pedraza-Díaz, S. (2013). Detection of a novel genotype of Cryptosporidium in Antarctic pinnipeds. Veterinary Parasitology 191, 112–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, L. J. (2009). Giardia and Cryptosporidium infections in sheep and goats: a review of the potential for transmission to humans via environmental contamination. Epidemiology and Infection 137, 913–921.Google Scholar
Robertson, L. J. and Fayer, R. (2013). Cryptosporidium . In Foodborne Protozoan Parasites (ed. Robertson, L. J. and Smith, H. V.), pp. 33–64. Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, NY, USA.Google Scholar
Robertson, B., Sinclair, M. I., Forbes, A. B., Veitch, M., Cunliffe, D., Willis, J. and Fairley, C. K. (2002). Case-control studies of sporadic cryptosporidiosis in Melbourne and Adelaide, Australia. Epidemiology and Infection 128, 419–431.Google Scholar
Robinson, G. and Chalmers, R. M. (2012). Assessment of polymorphic genetic markers for multi-locus typing of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis . Experimental Parasitology 132, 200–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, G., Wright, S., Elwin, K., Hadfield, S. J., Katzer, F., Bartley, P. M., Hunter, P. R., Nath, M., Innes, E. A. and Chalmers, R. M. (2010). Re-description of Cryptosporidium cuniculus Inman and Takeuchi, 1979 (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae): morphology, biology and phylogeny. International Journal for Parasitology 40, 1539–1548.Google Scholar
Roy, S. L., DeLong, S. M., Stenzel, S. A., Shiferaw, B., Roberts, J. M., Khalakdina, A., Marcus, R., Segler, S. D., Shah, D., Thomas, S., Vugia, D. J., Zansky, S. M., Dietz, V., and Beach, M. J. (2004). Risk factors for sporadic cryptosporidiosis among immunocompetent persons in the United States from 1999 to 2001. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42, 2944–2951.Google Scholar
Ruecker, N. J., Matsune, J. C., Wilkes, G., Lapen, D. R., Topp, E., Edge, T. A., Sensen, C. W., Xiao, L. and Neumann, N. F. (2012). Molecular and phylogenetic approaches for assessing sources of Cryptosporidium contamination in water. Water Research 46, 5135–5150.Google Scholar
Ruecker, N. J., Matsune, J. C., Lapen, D. R., Topp, E., Edge, T. A. and Neumann, N. F. (2013). The detection of Cryptosporidium and the resolution of mixtures of species and genotypes from water. Infection Genetics and Evolution 15, 3–9.Google Scholar
Ryan, U. (2010). Cryptosporidium in birds, fish and amphibians. Experimental Parasitology 124, 113–120.Google Scholar
Ryan, U. and Power, M. (2012). Cryptosporidium species in Australian wildlife and domestic animals. Parasitology 139, 1673–1688.Google Scholar
Ryan, U. M. and Xiao, L. (2014). Taxonomy and Molecular Taxonomy. In Cryptosporidium: Parasite and Disease (ed. Cacciò, S. M. and Widmer, G.). Springer, New York, NY, USA. In press.Google Scholar
Ryan, U. M., Samarasinghe, B., Read, C., Buddle, J. R., Robertson, I. D. and Thompson, R. C. (2003 a). Identification of a novel Cryptosporidium genotype in pigs. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69, 3970–3974.Google Scholar
Ryan, U. M., Xiao, L., Read, C., Zhou, L., Lal, A. A. and Pavlasek, I. (2003 b). Identification of novel Cryptosporidium genotypes from the Czech Republic. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69, 4302–4307.Google Scholar
Ryan, U. M., Xiao, L., Read, C., Sulaiman, I., Monis, P., Lal, A. A., Fayer, R. and Pavlasek, I. (2003 c). A redescription of Cryptosporidium galli Pavlasek, 1999 (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from birds. Journal of Parasitology 89, 809–813.Google Scholar
Ryan, U. M., Monis, P., Enemark, H. L., Sulaiman, I., Samarasinge, B., Read, C., Buddle, R., Robertson, I., Zhou, L., Thompson, R. C. A. and Xiao, L. (2004). Cryptosporidium suis n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in pigs (Sus scrofa). Journal of Parasitology 90, 769–773.Google Scholar
Ryan, U. M., Bath, C., Robertson, I., Read, C., Elliot, A., McInnes, L., Traub, R. and Besier, B. (2005). Sheep may not be an important zoonotic reservoir for Cryptosporidium and Giardia parasites. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71, 4992–4997.Google Scholar
Ryan, U. M., Power, M. and Xiao, L. (2008). Cryptosporidium fayeri n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from the red kangaroo (Macropus rufus). Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 55, 22–26.Google Scholar
Santín, M. (2013). Clinical and subclinical infections with Cryptosporidium in animals. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 61, 1–10.Google Scholar
Santín, M., Dixon, B. R. and Fayer, R. (2005). Genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium isolates from ringed seals (Phoca hispida) in Northern Quebec, Canada. Journal of Parasitology 91, 712–716.Google Scholar
Santín, M., Trout, J. M. and Fayer, R. (2007). Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia species and genotypes in sheep in Maryland. Veterinary Parasitology 146, 17–24.Google Scholar
Scallan, E., Hoekstra, R. M., Angulo, F. J., Tauxe, R. V. and Hoekstra, R. M. (2011). Foodborne illness acquired in the United States – major pathogens. Emerging Infectious Diseases 17, 7–15.Google Scholar
Sevá Ada, P., Funada, M. R., Souza Sde, O., Nava, A., Richtzenhain, L. J. and Soares, R. M. (2010). Occurrence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. isolated from domestic animals in a rural area surrounding Atlantic dry forest fragments in Teodoro Sampaio municipality, State of São Paulo, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinaria 19, 249–253.Google Scholar
Silva, S. O., Richtzenhain, L. J., Barros, I. N., Gomes, A. M., Silva, A. V., Kozerski, N. D., de Araújo Ceranto, J. B., Keid, L. B. and Soares, R. M. (2013). A new set of primers directed to 18S rRNA gene for molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. and their performance in the detection and differentiation of oocysts shed by synanthropic rodents. Experimental Parasitology 135, 551–557.Google Scholar
Silverlås, C. and Blanco-Penedo, I. (2013). Cryptosporidium spp. in calves and cows from organic and conventional dairy herds. Epidemiology and Infection 141, 529–539.Google Scholar
Silverlås, C., de Verdier, K., Emanuelson, U., Mattsson, J. G. and Björkman, C. (2010). Cryptosporidium infection in herds with and without calf diarrhoeal problems. Parasitology Research 107, 1435–1444.Google Scholar
Silverlås, C., Mattsson, J. G., Insulander, M. and Lebbad, M. (2012). Zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium meleagridis on an organic Swedish farm. International Journal for Parasitology 42, 963–967.Google Scholar
Slapeta, J. (2006). Cryptosporidium species found in cattle: a proposal for a new species. Trends in Parasitology 22, 469–474.Google Scholar
Slapeta, J. (2013). Cryptosporidiosis and Cryptosporidium species in animals and humans: a thirty colour rainbow? International Journal for Parasitology 43, 957–970.Google Scholar
Slavin, D. (1955). Cryptosporidium meleagridis (sp. nov.). Journal of Comparative Pathology 65, 262–270.Google Scholar
Staggs, S. E., Beckman, E. M., Keely, S. P., Mackwan, R., Ware, M. W., Moyer, A. P., Ferretti, J. A., Sayed, A., Xiao, L. and Villegas, E. N. (2013). The applicability of TaqMan-based quantitative real-time PCR assays for detecting and enumerating spp. oocysts in the environment. PLOS ONE 8, e66562.Google Scholar
Striepen, B. (2013). Time to tackle cryptosporidiosis. Nature 503, 189–191.Google Scholar
Sulaiman, I. M., Hira, P. R., Zhou, L., Al-Ali, F. M., Al-Shelahi, F. A., Shweiki, H. M., Iqbal, J., Khalid, N. and Xiao, L. (2005). Unique endemicity of cryptosporidiosis in children in Kuwait. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43, 2805–2809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sweeny, J. P., Ryan, U. M., Robertson, I. D., Yang, R., Bell, K. and Jacobson, C. (2011). Longitudinal investigation of protozoan parasites in meat lamb farms in southern Western Australia. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 101, 192–203.Google Scholar
Tanriverdi, S., Grinberg, A., Chalmers, R. M., Hunter, P. R., Petrovic, Z., Akiyoshi, D. E., London, E., Zhang, L., Tzipori, S., Tumwine, J. K. and Widmer, G. (2008). Inferences about the global population structure of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis . Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74, 7227–7234.Google Scholar
Tosini, F., Drumo, R., Elwin, K., Chalmers, R. M., Pozio, E. and Caccio, S. M. (2010). The CpA135 gene as a marker to identify Cryptosporidium species infecting humans. Parasitology International 59, 606–609.Google Scholar
Traversa, D. (2010). Evidence of a new species of Cryptosporidium infecting tortoises: Cryptosporidium ducimarci . Parasites and Vectors 3, 21.Google Scholar
Triffit, M. J. (1925). Observations on two new species of coccidia parasitic in snakes. Protozoology 1, 19–26.Google Scholar
Tyzzer, E. E. (1907). A sporozoan found in the peptic glands of the common mouse. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 5, 12–13.Google Scholar
Tyzzer, E. E. (1910). An extracellular coccidium, Cryptosporidium muris (gen. et sp. nov) of the gastric glands of the common mouse. Journal of Medical Research 23, 487–511.Google Scholar
Tyzzer, E. E. (1912). Cryptosporidium parvum (sp. nov.), a coccidium found in the small intestine of the common mouse. Archives fur Protistenkunde 26, 394–412.Google Scholar
Upton, S. J. and Current, W. L. (1985). The species of Cryptosporidium (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) infecting mammals. Journal of Parasitology 74, 625–629.Google Scholar
Venu, R., Latha, B. R., Basith, S. A., Raj, G. D., Sreekumar, C. and Raman, M. (2012). Molecular prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in dairy calves in Southern states of India. Veterinary Parasitology 188, 19–24.Google Scholar
Vetterling, J. M., Jervis, H. R., Merrill, T. G. and Sprinz, H. (1971). Cryptosporidium wrairi sp. n. from the guinea pig Cavia porcellus, with an amendation of the genus. Journal of Protozoology 18, 243–247.Google Scholar
Waldron, L. S., Cheung-Kwok-Sang, C. and Power, M. L. (2010). Wildlife-associated Cryptosporidium fayeri in humans, Australia. Emerging Infectious Disease 16, 2006–2007.Google Scholar
Waldron, L. S., Dimeski, B., Beggs, P. J., Ferrari, B. C. and Power, M. L. (2011). Molecular epidemiology, spatiotemporal analysis, and ecology of sporadic human cryptosporidiosis in Australia. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77, 7757–7765.Google Scholar
Walker, C. L., Rudan, I., Liu, L., Nair, H., Theodoratou, E., Bhutta, Z. A., O'Brien, K. L., Campbell, H. and Black, R. E. (2013). Childhood pneumonia and diarrhea 1. Global burden of childhood pneumonia and diarrhea. Lancet 381, 1405–1416.Google Scholar
Wang, Y., Feng, Y., Cui, B., Jian, F., Ning, C., Wang, R., Zhang, L. and Xiao, L. (2010 a). Cervine genotype is the major Cryptosporidium genotype in sheep in China. Parasitology Research 106, 341–347.Google Scholar
Wang, R., Qiu, S., Jian, F., Zhang, S., Shen, Y., Zhang, L., Ning, C., Cao, J., Qi, M. and Xiao, L. (2010 b). Prevalence and molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. in pigs in Henan, China. Parasitology Research 107, 1489–1494.Google Scholar
Wang, R., Wang, H., Sun, Y., Zhang, L., Jian, F., Qi, M., Ning, C. and Xiao, L. (2011 a). Characteristics of Cryptosporidium transmission in preweaned dairy cattle in Henan, China. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 49, 1077–1082.Google Scholar
Wang, R., Jian, F., Zhang, L., Ning, C., Liu, A., Zhao, J., Feng, Y., Qi, M., Wang, H., Lv, C., Zhao, G. and Xiao, L. (2012). Multilocus sequence subtyping and genetic structure of Cryptosporidium muris and Cryptosporidium andersoni . PLOS ONE 7, e43782.Google Scholar
Wang, L., Zhang, H., Zhao, X., Zhang, L., Zhang, G., Guo, M., Liu, L., Feng, Y. and Xiao, L. (2013). Zoonotic Cryptosporidium species and Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes in HIV-positive patients on antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51, 557–63.Google Scholar
Wetzel, R. (1938). Ein neues Coccid (Cryptosporidium vulpis sp. nov.) aus dem Rotfuchs. [New coccidia (Cryptosporidium vulpis sp. nov.) from Red Fox.]. Archiv fur Wissenschaftliche und Praktische Tierheilkunde 74, 39–40.Google Scholar
Widmer, G. and Lee, Y. (2010). Comparison of single- and multilocus genetic diversity in the protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis . Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76, 6639–6644.Google Scholar
Widmer, G. and Sullivan, S. (2012). Genomics and population biology of Cryptosporidium species. Parasite Immunology 34, 61–71.Google Scholar
Widmer, G., Lee, Y., Hunt, P., Martinelli, A., Tolkoff, M. and Bodi, K. (2012). Comparative genome analysis of two Cryptosporidium parvum isolates with different host range. Infection Genetics and Evolution, 12, 1213–1221.Google Scholar
Wielinga, P. R., de Vries, A., van der Goot, T. H., Mank, T., Mars, M. H., Kortbeek, L. M. and van der Giessen, J. W. (2008). Molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium in humans and cattle in the Netherlands. International Journal for Parasitology 38, 809–817.Google Scholar
Xiao, L. (2010). Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis: an update. Experimental Parasitology 124, 80–89.Google Scholar
Xiao, L. and Feng, Y. (2008). Zoonotic cryptosporidiosis. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology 52, 309–323.Google Scholar
Xiao, L., Morgan, U. M., Limor, J., Escalante, A., Arrowood, M., Shulaw, W., Thompson, R. C., Fayer, R. and Lal, A. A. (1999). Genetic diversity within Cryptosporidium parvum and related Cryptosporidium species. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65, 3386–3391.Google Scholar
Xiao, L., Bern, C., Arrowood, M., Sulaiman, I., Zhou, L., Kawai, V., Vivar, A., Lal, A. A. and Gilman, R. H. (2002 a). Identification of the Cryptosporidium pig genotype in a human patient. Journal of Infectious Diseases 185, 1846–1848.Google Scholar
Xiao, L., Sulaiman, I. M., Ryan, U. M., Zhou, L., Atwill, E. R., Tischler, M. L., Zhang, X., Fayer, R. and Lal, A. A. (2002 b). Host adaptation and host-parasite co-evolution in Cryptosporidium: implications for taxonomy and public health. International Journal of Parasitology 32, 1773–1785.Google Scholar
Xiao, L., Fayer, R., Ryan, U. and Upton, S. J. (2004). Cryptosporidium taxonomy: recent advances and implications for public health. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 17, 72–97.Google Scholar
Xiao, L., Moore, J. E., Ukoh, U., Gatei, W., Lowery, C. J., Murphy, T. M., Dooley, J. S., Millar, B. C., Rooney, P. J. and Rao, J. R. (2006). Prevalence and identity of Cryptosporidium spp. in pig slurry. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72, 4461–4463.Google Scholar
Xiao, L., Fayer, R., Ryan, U. and Upton, S. J. (2007). Response to the newly proposed species Cryptosporidium pestis . Trends in Parasitology 23, 41–42.Google Scholar
Yang, R., Jacobson, C., Gordon, C. and Ryan, U. (2009). Prevalence and molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia species in pre-weaned sheep in Australia. Veterinary Parasitology 161, 19–24.Google Scholar
Yang, R., Murphy, C., Song, Y., Ng-Hublin, J., Estcourt, A., Hijjawi, N., Chalmers, R., Hadfield, S., Bath, A., Gordon, C. and Ryan, U. (2013). Specific and quantitative detection and identification of Cryptosporidium hominis and C. parvum in clinical and environmental samples. Experimental Parasitology 135, 142–147.Google Scholar
Yang, R., Jacobson, C., Gardner, G., Carmichael, I., Campbell, A. J., Ng-Hublin, J. and Ryan, U. (2014). Longitudinal prevalence, oocyst shedding and molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium species in sheep across four states in Australia. Veterinary Parasitology 200, 50–58.Google Scholar
Ye, J., Xiao, L., Wang, Y., Wang, L., Amer, S., Roellig, D. M., Guo, Y., and Feng, Y. (2013). Periparturient transmission of Cryptosporidium xiaoi from ewes to lambs. Veterinary Parasitology 197, 627–633.Google Scholar
Yin, J., Shen, Y., Yuan, Z., Lu, W., Xu, Y. and Cao, J. (2011). Prevalence of the Cryptosporidium pig genotype II in pigs from the Yangtze River Delta, China. PLOS ONE 6, e20738.Google Scholar
Yui, T., Nakajima, T., Yamamoto, N., Kon, M., Abe, N., Matsubayashi, M. and Shibahara, T. (2014). Age-related detection and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium suis and Cryptosporidium scrofarum in pre- and post-weaned piglets and adult pigs in Japan. Parasitology Research 113, 359–365.Google Scholar
Zhang, W., Wang, R., Yang, F., Zhang, L., Cao, J., Zhang, X., Ling, H., Liu, A. and Shen, Y. (2013 a). Distribution and genetic characterizations of Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned dairy calves in Northeastern China's Heilongjiang Province. PLOS ONE 8, e54857.Google Scholar
Zhang, W., Yang, F., Liu, A., Wang, R., Zhang, L., Shen, Y., Cao, J. and Ling, H. (2013 b). Prevalence and genetic characterizations of Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned and post-weaned piglets in Heilongjiang Province, China. PLOS ONE 8, e67564.Google Scholar
Zhao, G. H., Ren, W. X., Gao, M., Bian, Q. Q., Hu, B., Cong, M. M., Lin, Q., Wang, R. J., Qi, M., Qi, M. Z., Zhu, X. Q. and Zhang, L. X. (2013). Genotyping Cryptosporidium andersoni in cattle in Shaanxi Province, Northwestern China. PLOS ONE 8, e60112.Google Scholar
Zintl, A., Neville, D., Maguire, D., Fanning, S., Mulcahy, G., Smith, H. V. and De Waal, T. (2007). Prevalence of Cryptosporidium species in intensively farmed pigs in Ireland. Parasitology 134, 1575–1582.Google Scholar
Zintl, A., Proctor, A. F., Read, C., Dewaal, T., Shanaghy, N., Fanning, S. and Mulcahy, G. (2009). The prevalence of Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in human faecal samples in Ireland. Epidemiology and Infection 137, 270–277.Google Scholar