Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T03:14:25.344Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The potential nutrition-, physical- and health-related benefits of cow’s milk for primary-school-aged children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 April 2021

Penny Rumbold ,
Nicola McCullogh Open the ORCID record for Nicola McCullogh [Opens in a new window] ,
Ruth Boldon ,
Crystal Haskell-Ramsay Open the ORCID record for Crystal Haskell-Ramsay [Opens in a new window] ,
Lewis James ,
Emma Stevenson  and
Benjamin Green
Penny Rumbold*
Affiliation:
Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Nicola McCullogh
Affiliation:
Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Ruth Boldon
Affiliation:
Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Crystal Haskell-Ramsay
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Lewis James
Affiliation:
National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine East Midlands, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, National Centre of Sport and Exercise Medicine, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
Emma Stevenson
Affiliation:
Human Nutrition Research Centre, Population Health Sciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Benjamin Green
Affiliation:
Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Danone Specialised Nutrition, Trowbridge, UK
*
*Corresponding Author: Penny Rumbold, Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Cow’s milk is a naturally nutrient-dense foodstuff. A significant source of many essential nutrients, its inclusion as a component of a healthy balanced diet has been long recommended. Beyond milk’s nutritional value, an increasing body of evidence illustrates cow’s milk may confer numerous benefits related to health. Evidence from adult populations suggests that cow’s milk may have a role in overall dietary quality, appetite control, hydration and cognitive function. Although evidence is limited compared with the adult literature, these benefits may be echoed in recent paediatric studies. This article, therefore, reviews the scientific literature to provide an evidence-based evaluation of the associated health benefits of cow’s milk consumption in primary-school-aged children (4–11 years). We focus on seven key areas related to nutrition and health comprising nutritional status, hydration, dental and bone health, physical stature, cognitive function, and appetite control. The evidence consistently demonstrates cow’s milk (plain and flavoured) improves nutritional status in primary-school-aged children. With some confidence, cow’s milk also appears beneficial for hydration, dental and bone health and beneficial to neutral concerning physical stature and appetite. Due to conflicting studies, reaching a conclusion has proven difficult concerning cow’s milk and cognitive function; therefore, a level of caution should be exercised when interpreting these results. All areas, however, would benefit from further robust investigation, especially in free-living school settings, to verify conclusions. Nonetheless, when the nutritional-, physical- and health-related impact of cow’s milk avoidance is considered, the evidence highlights the importance of increasing cow’s milk consumption.

Keywords

MilkDairyChildrenNutritionHealthPaediatrics
Type
Review Article
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 35 , Issue 1 , June 2022 , pp. 50 - 69
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Nutrition Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

†

These authors contributed equally to this work.

References

Nagpal, R, Behare, PV, Kumar, M, et al. (2012) Milk, milk products, and disease free health: an updated overview. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 52(4):321–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebringer, L, Ferenčík, M, Krajčovič, J. (2008) Beneficial health effects of milk and fermented dairy products – Review. Folia Microbiologica 53(5):378–394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nongonierma, AB, FitzGerald, RJ. (2015) The scientific evidence for the role of milk protein-derived bioactive peptides in humans: A review. Journal of Functional Foods 17:640–656.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferreira, AM, Bislev, SL, Bendixen, E, et al. (2013) The mammary gland in domestic ruminants: A systems biology perspective. Journal of Proteomics 94:110–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rezaei, R, Wu, Z, Hou, Y, et al. (2016) Amino acids and mammary gland development: nutritional implications for milk production and neonatal growth. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 7(1):20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Givens, DI, Livingstone, KM, Pickering, JE, et al. (2014) Milk: White elixir or white poison? An examination of the associations between dairy consumption and disease in human subjects. Animal Frontiers 4(2):8–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Velten, H. (2010) Milk: A global history: Reaktion Books.Google Scholar
Ludwig, DS, Willett, WC. (2013) Three daily servings of reduced-fat milk: An evidence-based recommendation? JAMA Pediatrics 167(9):788–789.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melnik, BC. (2009) Milk – The promoter of chronic Western diseases. Medical Hypotheses 72(6):631–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, PJ, Warren, JM, Lubans, DR, et al. (2010) The impact of nutrition education with and without a school garden on knowledge, vegetable intake and preferences and quality of school life among primary-school students. Public Health Nutrition 13(11):1931–1940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patton, GC, Viner, R. (2007) Pubertal transitions in health. The Lancet 369(9567):1130–1139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, T, Temple, NJ (2016) How beverages impact health and nutrition. In: Wilson T, Temple NJ, editors. Beverage Impacts on Health and Nutrition: Second Edition. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 3–9.Google Scholar
Rozenberg, S, Body, J-J, Bruyère, O, et al. (2016) Effects of dairy products consumption on health: benefits and beliefs – A commentary from the Belgian Bone Club and the European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis, Osteoarthritis and Musculoskeletal Diseases. Calcified Tissue International 98(1):1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clare, DA, Swaisgood, HE. (2000) Bioactive milk peptides: A prospectus. Journal of Dairy Science 83(6):1187–1195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parodi, PW. (2004) Milk fat in human nutrition. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology 59(1):3.Google Scholar
MacGibbon, AKH, Taylor, MW (2006) Composition and structure of bovine milk lipids. In: Fox PF, McSweeney PLH, editors. Advanced Dairy Chemistry Volume 2 Lipids. Boston, MA: Springer US. p. 1–42.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, SB, Tarnopolsky, MA, MacDonald, MJ, et al. (2007) Consumption of fluid skim milk promotes greater muscle protein accretion after resistance exercise than does consumption of an isonitrogenous and isoenergetic soy-protein beverage. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 85(4):1031–1040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tunick, MH, Van Hekken, DL. (2015) Dairy products and health: Recent insights. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 63(43):9381–9388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bates, B, Lennox, A, Prentice, A, et al. (2014) National diet and nutrition survey: Results from years 1, 2, 3 and 4 (combined) of the rolling programme (2008/2009-2011/2012): A survey carried out on behalf of public health England and the food standards agency: Public Health England.Google Scholar
Roberts, C, Steer, T, Maplethorpe, N, et al. (2018) National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Results from years 7 and 8 (combined) of the rolling programme (2014/2015–2015/2016).Google Scholar
Cavadini, C, Siega-Riz, AM, Popkin, BM. (2000) US adolescent food intake trends from 1965 to 1996. Archives of Disease in Childhood 83(1):18–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiorito, LM, Mitchell, DC, Smiciklas-Wright, H, et al. (2006) Dairy and dairy-related nutrient intake during middle childhood. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 106(4):534–542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baird, DL, Syrette, J, Hendrie, GA, et al. (2012) Dairy food intake of Australian children and adolescents 2–16 years of age: 2007 Australian National Children’s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. Public Health Nutrition 15(11):2060–2073.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Rossum, CT, Fransen, HP, Verkaik-Kloosterman, J, et al. (2011) Dutch National Food Consumption Survey 2007-2010: Diet of children and adults aged 7 to 69 years. RIVM report 350050006/2011:1-143.Google Scholar
Black, RE, Williams, SM, Jones, IE, et al. (2002) Children who avoid drinking cow milk have low dietary calcium intakes and poor bone health. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76(3):675–680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Appel, LJ, Moore, TJ, Obarzanek, E, et al. (1997) A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. The New England Journal of Medicine 336(16):1117–1124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pereira, MA, Jacobs, J, David, R., Van Horn, L, et al. (2002) Dairy consumption, obesity, and the insulin resistance syndrome in young adults: The CARDIA Study. JAMA 287(16):2081–2089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elwood, PC, Pickering, JE, Fehily, AM. (2007) Milk and dairy consumption, diabetes and the metabolic syndrome: The Caerphilly prospective study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 61(8):695–698.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rockell, JEP, Williams, SM, Taylor, RW, et al. (2005) Two-year changes in bone and body composition in young children with a history of prolonged milk avoidance. Osteoporosis International 16(9):1016–1023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soedamah-Muthu, SS, de Goede, J. (2018) Dairy consumption and cardiometabolic diseases: Systematic review and updated meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies. Current Nutrition Reports 7(4):171–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crichton, GE, Bryan, J, Buckley, J, et al. (2011) Dairy consumption and metabolic syndrome: a systematic review of findings and methodological issues. Obesity Reviews 12(5):e190–e201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abargouei, AS, Janghorbani, M, Salehi-Marzijarani, M, et al. (2012) Effect of dairy consumption on weight and body composition in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. International Journal of Obesity 36(12):1485–1493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barba, G, Russo, P. (2006) Dairy foods, dietary calcium and obesity: A short review of the evidence. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 16(6):445–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dougkas, A, Reynolds, CK, Givens, ID, et al. (2011) Associations between dairy consumption and body weight: a review of the evidence and underlying mechanisms. Nutrition Research Reviews 24(1):72–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dougkas, A, Barr, S, Reddy, S, et al. (2019) A critical review of the role of milk and other dairy products in the development of obesity in children and adolescents. Nutrition Research Reviews 32(1):106–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, J, Irwig, LM, Chinn, S, et al. (1979) The influence of availability of free school milk on the height of children in England and Scotland. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 33(3):171–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campmans-Kuijpers, MJE, Singh-Povel, C, Steijns, J, et al. (2016) The association of dairy intake of children and adolescents with different food and nutrient intakes in the Netherlands. BMC Pediatrics 16(1):2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, J, Altman, DG, Jacoby, A, et al. (1975) The contribution made by school milk to the nutrition of primary schoolchildren. British Journal of Nutrition 34(1):91–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaRowe, TL, Moeller, SM, Adams, AK. (2007) Beverage patterns, diet quality, and body mass index of US preschool and school-aged children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 107(7):1124–1133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, MM, Douglass, JS, Johnson, RK, et al. (2008) Drinking flavored or plain milk is positively associated with nutrient intake and is not associated with adverse effects on weight status in US children and adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 108(4):631–639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rangan, AM, Flood, VM, Denyer, G, et al. (2012) Dairy consumption and diet quality in a sample of Australian children. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 31(3):185–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, J, Shang, L, Johnson-Down, L, et al. (2012) Contribution of flavoured milk on dietary intakes and its association with body mass index percentile in children at high risk of overweight. The FASEB Journal 26(S1):lb389–lb389.Google Scholar
Kuriyan, R, Thankachan, P, Selvam, S, et al. (2016) The effects of regular consumption of a multiple micronutrient fortified milk beverage on the micronutrient status of school children and on their mental and physical performance. Clinical Nutrition 35(1):190–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albala, C, Ebbeling, CB, Cifuentes, M, et al. (2008) Effects of replacing the habitual consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages with milk in Chilean children. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 88(3):605–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lien, DTK, Nhung, BT, Khan, NC, et al. (2009) Impact of milk consumption on performance and health of primary school children in rural Vietnam. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 18:326–334.Google Scholar
Fiorito, LM, Marini, M, Mitchell, DC, et al. (2010) Girls’ early sweetened carbonated beverage intake predicts different patterns of beverage and nutrient intake across childhood and adolescence. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 110(4):543–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weir, RR, Johnston, M, Lowis, C, et al. (2020) Vitamin D3 content of cows’ milk produced in Northern Ireland and its efficacy as a vehicle for vitamin D fortification: A UK model. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition: 1-9.Google Scholar
Itkonen, ST, Erkkola, M, Lamberg-Allardt, CJE. (2018) Vitamin D fortification of fluid milk products and their contribution to vitamin D intake and vitamin D status in observational studies – A review. Nutrients 10(8):1054.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanks, AS, Just, DR, Wansink, B. (2014) Chocolate milk consequences: A pilot study evaluating the consequences of banning chocolate milk in school cafeterias. PLoS One 9(4):e91022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, C, Whiting, SJ, Phillips, T, et al. (2015) Impact of the removal of chocolate milk from school milk programs for children in Saskatoon, Canada. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 40(3):245–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fayet-Moore, F. (2015) Effect of flavored milk vs plain milk on total milk intake and nutrient provision in children. Nutrition Reviews 74(1):1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rehm, CD, Drewnowski, A, Monsivais, P. (2015) Potential population-level nutritional impact of replacing whole and reduced-fat milk with low-fat and skim milk among US children aged 2–19 years. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 47(1):61-68.e61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Popkin, BM, D’Anci, KE, Rosenberg, IH. (2010) Water, hydration, and health. Nutrition Reviews 68(8):439–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D’Anci, KE, Constant, F, Rosenberg, IH. (2006) Hydration and cognitive function in children. Nutrition Reviews 64(10):457–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maughan, RJ, Watson, P, Cordery, PA, et al. (2015) A randomized trial to assess the potential of different beverages to affect hydration status: development of a beverage hydration index. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 103(3):717–723.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonnet, F, Lepicard, EM, Cathrin, L, et al. (2012) French children start their school day with a hydration deficit. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 60(4):257–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montenegro-Bethancourt, G, Johner, SA, Remer, T. (2013) Contribution of fruit and vegetable intake to hydration status in schoolchildren. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 98(4):1103–1112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volterman, K, Moore, D, Obeid, J, et al. (2016) The effect of postexercise milk protein intake on rehydration of children. Pediatric Exercise Science 28(2):286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volterman, KA, Obeid, J, Wilk, B, et al. (2014) Effect of milk consumption on rehydration in youth following exercise in the heat. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 39(11):1257–1264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, L. (2012) Milk ingestion in athletes and physically active individuals. Nutrition Bulletin 37(3):257–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pegoretti, C, Antunes, AEC, Manchado-Gobatto FdB, et al. (2015) Milk: An alternative beverage for hydration? Food and Nutrition Sciences 6(6):8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shirreffs, SM, Watson, P, Maughan, RJ. (2007) Milk as an effective post-exercise rehydration drink. British Journal of Nutrition 98(1):173–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, LJ, Stevenson, EJ, Rumbold, PLS, et al. (2019) Cow’s milk as a post-exercise recovery drink: implications for performance and health. European Journal of Sport Science 19(1):40–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maughan, RJ, Leiper, JB. (1995) Sodium intake and post-exercise rehydration in man. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 71(4):311–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maughan, RJ, Owen, JH, Shirreffs, SM, et al. (1994) Post-exercise rehydration in man: Effects of electrolyte addition to ingested fluids. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 69(3):209–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, LJ, Clayton, D, Evans, GH. (2011) Effect of milk protein addition to a carbohydrate–electrolyte rehydration solution ingested after exercise in the heat. British Journal of Nutrition 105(3):393–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, LJ, Evans, GH, Madin, J, et al. (2013) Effect of varying the concentrations of carbohydrate and milk protein in rehydration solutions ingested after exercise in the heat. British Journal of Nutrition 110(7):1285–1291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aimutis, WR. (2004) Bioactive properties of milk proteins with particular focus on anticariogenesis. The Journal of Nutrition 134(4):989S–995S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, RS. (2001) Milk, flavoured milk products and caries. British Dental Journal 191(1):20–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moynihan, P. (2000) Foods and factors that protect against dental caries. Nutrition Bulletin 25(4):281–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferrazzano, G, Cantile, T, Quarto, M, et al. (2008) Protective effect of yogurt extract on dental enamel demineralization in vitro. Australian Dental Journal 53(4):314–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, RS, Nugent, ZJ, Rudolf, MC, et al. (2007) Dietary patterns, toothbrushing habits and caries experience of schoolchildren in West Yorkshire, England. Community Dental Health 24(2):82–87.Google ScholarPubMed
Llena, C, Forner, L. (2008) Dietary habits in a child population in relation to caries experience. Caries Research 42(5):387–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petti, S, Simonetti, R, D’Arca, AS. (1997) The effect of milk and sucrose consumption on caries in 6-to-11-year-old Italian schoolchildren. European Journal of Epidemiology 13(6):659–664.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtis, AM, VanBuren, J, Cavanaugh, JE, et al. (2018) Longitudinal associations between dental caries increment and risk factors in late childhood and adolescence. Journal of Public Health and Dentistry 78(4):321–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giacaman, RA, Campos, P, Muñoz-Sandoval, C, et al. (2013) Cariogenic potential of commercial sweeteners in an experimental biofilm caries model on enamel. Archives of Oral Biology 58(9):1116–1122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cross, KJ, Huq, NL, Palamara, JE, et al. (2005) Physicochemical characterization of casein phosphopeptide-amorphous calcium phosphate nanocomplexes. Journal of Biological Chemistry 280(15):15362–15369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDougall, WA. (1977) Effect of milk on enamel demineralization and remineralization in vitro. Caries Research 11(3):166–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weaver, CM. (2014) Milk consumption and bone health. JAMA Pediatrics 168(1):12–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiley, AS. (2010) Dairy and milk consumption and child growth: Is BMI involved? An analysis of NHANES 1999–2004. American Journal of Human Biology 22(4):517–525.Google ScholarPubMed
Leighton, G, Clark, ML. (1929) Milk consumption and the growth of school children: Second preliminary report on tests to the Scottish Board of Health. British Medical Journal 1(3548):23–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orr, JB. (1928) Influence of amount of milk consumption on the rate of growth of school children. British Medical Journal 1(3499):140–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonjour, JP, Carrie, AL, Ferrari, S, et al. (1997) Calcium-enriched foods and bone mass growth in prepubertal girls: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 99(6):1287–1294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chan, GM, Hoffman, K, McMurry, M. (1995) Effects of dairy products on bone and body composition in pubertal girls. The Journal of Pediatrics 126(4):551–556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Du, X, Zhu, K, Trube, A, et al. (2004) School-milk intervention trial enhances growth and bone mineral accretion in Chinese girls aged 10–12 years in Beijing. British Journal of Nutrition 92(1):159–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goulding, A, Rockell, JEP, Black, RE, et al. (2004) Children who avoid drinking cow’s milk are at increased risk for prepubertal bone fractures. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104(2):250–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iuliano-Burns, S, Wang, XF, Evans, A, et al. (2006) Skeletal benefits from calcium supplementation are limited in children with calcium intakes near 800 mg daily. Osteoporosis International 17(12):1794–1800.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, Y, Hu, Y, Ma, Z, et al. (2011) Relation of long-term consumption of school milk to bone density in children. Journal of Hygiene Research 40(1):65–67.Google ScholarPubMed
Feskanich, D, Bischoff-Ferrari, HA, Frazier, AL, et al. (2014) Milk consumption during teenage years and risk of hip fractures in older adults. JAMA Pediatrics 168(1):54–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sunyecz, JA. (2008) The use of calcium and vitamin D in the management of osteoporosis. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management 4(4):827–836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaucheron, F. (2011) Milk and dairy products: A unique micronutrient combination. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 30(sup5):400S–409S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caroli, A, Poli, A, Ricotta, D, et al. (2011) Invited review: Dairy intake and bone health: A viewpoint from the state of the art. Journal of Dairy Science 94(11):5249–5262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rizzoli, R. (2014) Dairy products, yogurts, and bone health. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 99(5):1256S–1262S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, IA, Elwood, PC, Hughes, J, et al. (1980) A randomised controlled trial of the effect of the provision of free school milk on the growth of children. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 34(1):31–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guo, Q, Wang, B, Cao, S, et al. (2020) Association between milk intake and childhood growth: results from a nationwide cross-sectional survey. International Journal of Obesity.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matkovic, V, Landoll, JD, Badenhop-Stevens, NE, et al. (2004) Nutrition influences skeletal development from childhood to adulthood: A study of hip, spine, and forearm in adolescent females. The Journal of Nutrition 134(3):701S–705S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okada, T. (2004) Effect of cow milk consumption on longitudinal height gain in children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80(4):1088–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rona, RJ, Chinn, S. (1989) School meals, school milk and height of primary school children in England and Scotland in the eighties. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 43(1):66–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiley, AS. (2005) Does milk make children grow? Relationships between milk consumption and height in NHANES 1999–2002. American Journal of Human Biology 17(4):425–441.Google ScholarPubMed
Matkovic, V, Jelic, T, Wardlaw, GM, et al. (1994) Timing of peak bone mass in Caucasian females and its implication for the prevention of osteoporosis. Inference from a cross-sectional model. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 93(2):799–808.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luiza Loro, M, Sayre, J, Roe, TF, et al. (2000) Early identification of children predisposed to low peak bone mass and osteoporosis later in life. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 85(10):3908–3918.Google Scholar
Hoppe, C, Mølgaard, C, Vaag, A, et al. (2005) High intakes of milk, but not meat, increase s-insulin and insulin resistance in 8-year-old boys. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59(3):393–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoppe, C, Udam, TR, Lauritzen, L, et al. (2004) Animal protein intake, serum insulin-like growth factor I, and growth in healthy 2.5-y-old Danish children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80(2):447–452.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, I, Emmett, P, Gunnell, D, et al. (2006) Milk as a food for growth? The insulin-like growth factors link. Public Health Nutrition 9(3):359–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woods, SC, Lutz, TA, Geary, N, et al. (2006) Pancreatic signals controlling food intake; insulin, glucagon and amylin. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 361(1471):1219–1235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berthoud, H-R. (2006) Homeostatic and non-homeostatic pathways involved in the control of food intake and energy balance. Obesity 14(S8):197S–200S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aziz, A, Anderson, GH. (2007) The effects of dairy components on food intake and satiety. In: Saarela, M, editor. Functional Dairy Products: Woodhead Publishing. p. 19–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kavezade, S, Mozaffari-Khosravi, H, Aflatoonian, M, et al. (2018) The effects of whole milk compared to skim milk and apple juice consumption in breakfast on appetite and energy intake in obese children: A three-way randomized crossover clinical trial. BMC Nutrition 4(1):44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehrabani, S, Safavi, SM, Mehrabani, S, et al. (2016) Effects of low-fat milk consumption at breakfast on satiety and short-term energy intake in 10- to 12-year-old obese boys. European Journal of Nutrition 55(4):1389–1396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehrabani, S, Salehi-Abargouei, A, Asemi, M, et al. (2014) Effect of low-fat milk consumption compared to apple juice and water on the energy intake among 10-12-year-old obese boys: A three-way cross-over clinical trial. International Journal of Preventive Medicine 5(11):1405–1411.Google ScholarPubMed
Rumbold, PLS, Dodd-Reynolds, CJ, Stevenson, EJ. (2013) Informing primary school nutritional policy: Effects of mid-morning snacks on appetite and energy control. Food and Nutrition Sciences 4(5):529–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vien, S, Patel, B, Panahi, S, et al. (2014) The effect of fluid dairy products on food intake, glycemic and appetite hormone responses in children (120.3). The FASEB Journal 28(S1):120–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, GH, Moore, SE. (2004) Dietary proteins in the regulation of food intake and body weight in humans. The Journal of Nutrition 134(4):974S–979S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Astrup, A. (2005) The satiating power of protein –a key to obesity prevention? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 82(1):1–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolls, BJ, Hetherington, M, Burley, VJ. (1988) The specificity of satiety: The influence of foods of different macronutrient content on the development of satiety. Physiology & Behavior 43(2):145–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowen, J, Noakes, M, Trenerry, C, et al. (2006) Energy intake, ghrelin, and cholecystokinin after different carbohydrate and protein preloads in overweight men. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 91(4):1477–1483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terpstra, AH. (2004) Effect of conjugated linoleic acid on body composition and plasma lipids in humans: An overview of the literature. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79(3):352–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, J-J, Huang, CJ, Xie, D. (2008) Anti-obesity effects of conjugated linoleic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and eicosapentaenoic acid. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research 52(6):631–645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plourde, M, Jew, S, Cunnane, SC, et al. (2008) Conjugated linoleic acids: Why the discrepancy between animal and human studies? Nutrition Reviews 66(7):415–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, YW, Jones, PJH. (2004) Conjugated linoleic acid and obesity control: Efficacy and mechanisms. International Journal of Obesity 28(8):941–955.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jo, H. (2008) Understanding and addressing the epidemic of obesity: An energy balance perspective. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation and Prevention 28(5):345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Florence, MD, Asbridge, M, Veugelers, PJ. (2008) Diet quality and academic performance. 78(4):209–215.Google ScholarPubMed
Brindal, E, Baird, D, Slater, A, et al. (2013) The effect of beverages varying in glycaemic load on postprandial glucose responses, appetite and cognition in 10–12-year-old school children. British Journal of Nutrition 110(3):529–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rahmani, K, Djazayery, A, Habibi, MI, et al. (2011) Effects of daily milk supplementation on improving the physical and mental function as well as school performance among children: Results from a school feeding program. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 16(4):469–476.Google ScholarPubMed
Petrova, D, Bernabeu Litrán, MA, García-Mármol, E, et al. (2019) Effects of fortified milk on cognitive abilities in school-aged children: Results from a randomized-controlled trial. European Journal of Nutrition 58(5):1863–1872.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faught, EL, Montemurro, G, Storey, KE, et al. (2017) Adherence to dietary recommendations supports Canadian children’s academic achievement. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research 78(3):102–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, JR, Gunstad, J, Updegraff, J, et al. (2020) Biological sex and glucoregulation modulate postprandial cognition following dairy milk and fruit juice in healthy school-age children. Nutritional Neuroscience 23(5):374–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amiel, SA, Pottinger, RC, Archibald, HR, et al. (1991) Effect of antecedent glucose control on cerebral function during hypoglycemia. Diabetes Care 14(2):109–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, AE, MacLeod, KM, Thomson, KJ, et al. (1995) Cognitive function during insulin-induced hypoglycemia in humans: Short-term cerebral adaptation does not occur. Psychopharmacology 119(3):325–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaz, M, Pauline, M, Unni, US, et al. (2011) Micronutrient supplementation improves physical performance measures in Asian Indian school-age children. The Journal of Nutrition 141(11):2017–2023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swaminathan, S, Edward, BS, Kurpad, AV. (2013) Micronutrient deficiency and cognitive and physical performance in Indian children. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 67(5):467–474.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahrou, FE, Azlaf, M, El Menchawy, I, et al. (2016) Fortified iodine milk improves iodine status and cognitive abilities in schoolchildren aged 7–9 years living in a rural mountainous area of Morocco. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism 2016:8468594.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheng, X, Li, Z, Ni, J, et al. (2019) Effects of conventional milk versus milk containing only A2 β-casein on digestion in Chinese children: A randomized study. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 69(3):375–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, SH, Kim, WK, Kang, M-H. (2016) Relationships between milk consumption and academic performance, learning motivation and strategy, and personality in Korean adolescents. Nutrition Research and Practice 10(2):198–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, BP, Stevenson, EJ, Rumbold, PLS. (2017) Metabolic, endocrine and appetite-related responses to acute and daily milk snack consumption in healthy, adolescent males. Appetite 108:93–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbons, C, Finlayson, G, Dalton, M, et al. (2014) Metabolic phenotyping guidelines: Studying eating behaviour in humans. Journal of Endocrinology 222(2):G1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allsop, S, Rumbold, PLS, Green, BP. (2016) The between-day reproducibility of fasting, satiety-related analytes, in 8 to 11 year-old boys. Physiology & Behavior 164:207–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, BP, Gonzalez, JT, Thomas, K, et al. (2014) Agreement between fingertip-capillary and antecubital-venous appetite-related peptides. Endocrine Connections 3(4):233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dayre McNally, J, Matheson, LA, Sankaran, K, et al. (2008) Capillary blood sampling as an alternative to venipuncture in the assessment of serum 25 hydroxyvitamin D levels. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 112(1):164–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lake, AA, Mathers, JC, Rugg-Gunn, AJ, et al. (2006) Longitudinal change in food habits between adolescence (11–12 years) and adulthood (32–33 years): the ASH30 Study. Journal of Public Health 28(1):10–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gortmaker, SL, Peterson, K, Wiecha, J, et al. (1999) Reducing obesity via a school-based interdisciplinary intervention among youth: Planet Health. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 153(4):409–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar