Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T20:49:41.291Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Odour from animal production facilities: its relationship to diet

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

Phung D. Le ,
André J. A. Aarnink ,
Nico W. M. Ogink ,
Petra M. Becker  and
Martin W. A. Verstegen
Phung D. Le
Affiliation:
Wageningen UR, Agrotechnology and Food Innovations, Bornsesteeg 59, 6708 PD Wageningen, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands Wageningen UR, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Marijkeweg 40, 6709 PG, Wageningen, The Netherlands Department of Animal Sciences, Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, 102 Phung Hung Street, Hue City, Vietnam
André J. A. Aarnink*
Affiliation:
Wageningen UR, Agrotechnology and Food Innovations, Bornsesteeg 59, 6708 PD Wageningen, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Nico W. M. Ogink
Affiliation:
Wageningen UR, Agrotechnology and Food Innovations, Bornsesteeg 59, 6708 PD Wageningen, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Petra M. Becker
Affiliation:
Wageningen UR, Animal Science Group, Nutrition and Food, PO Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands
Martin W. A. Verstegen
Affiliation:
Wageningen UR, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Marijkeweg 40, 6709 PG, Wageningen, The Netherlands
*
*Corresponding author: Dr André J. A. Aarnink, fax +31 317 476554, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Though bad odour has always been associated with animal production, it did not attract much research attention until in many countries the odour production and emission from intensified animal production caused serious nuisance and was implicated in the health problems of individuals living near animal farms. Odour from pig production facilities is generated by the microbial conversion of feed in the large intestine of pigs and by the microbial conversion of pig excreta under anaerobic conditions and in manure stores. Assuming that primary odour-causing compounds arise from an excess of degradable protein and a lack of specific fermentable carbohydrates during microbial fermentation, the main dietary components that can be altered to reduce odour are protein and fermentable carbohydrates. In the present paper we aim to give an up-to-date review of studies on the relationship between diet composition and odour production, with the emphasis on protein and fermentable carbohydrates. We hypothesise how odour might be changed and/or reduced by altering the diet of pigs. Research so far has mainly focused on the single effects of different levels of crude protein and fermentable carbohydrates on odour production. However, also important for odour formation are the sources of protein and fermentable carbohydrates. In addition, it is not only the amount and source of these compounds that is important, but also the balance between them. On the basis of our review of the literature, we hypothesise that odour nuisance from pig production facilities might be reduced significantly if there is an optimum balance between protein and fermentable carbohydrates in the diet of pigs.

Keywords

Odour nuisancePig dietsAnimal production
Type
Research Articles
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 18 , Issue 1 , June 2005 , pp. 3 - 30
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2005

References

Aarnink, AJA (1997) Ammonia emission from houses for growing pigs as affected by pen design, indoor climate and behaviour. PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Aarnink, AJA, Canh, TT & Bakker, GCM (1996) Effect of Dietary Fermentable Carbohydrates on the pH and the Ammonia Emission from Slurry of Growing-Finishing Pigs. Wageningen, The Netherlands: IMAG-DLO.Google Scholar
Aarnink, AJA, Hoeksma, P & Ouwerkerk, ENJ (1993) Factors affecting ammonium concentration in slurry from fattening pigs. In Nitrogen Flow in Pig Production and Environmental Consequences. European Association for Animal Production publication no. 69, pp. 413–420 [Verstegen, MWA, den Hartog, LA and van Kempen, GJM, editors]. Wageningen, The Netherlands: EAAP.Google Scholar
Akobe, K (1936) Darstellung van D- und L -α-oxy-γ-methiobuttersäure und damit ausgeführte Ernährungsversuche (Description of D- and L -α-oxy-γ-methiobutteracid and their nutrition experiments). Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschrift fur Physiologische Chemie 244, 14–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Society of Agricultural Engineers (1998) Manure Production and Characteristics. Proposal for ASAE D384.1. St Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.Google Scholar
American Society of Agricultural Engineers (1989) Sulfide: physical, biological, and chemical characteristics. In Sulfide in Waste Water Collection and Treatment Systems. ASAE Manual Report of Engineering Practice no. 69, pp. 4–15 [Kienow, PE, editor]. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, Chapter 2.Google Scholar
Amon, M, Dobeic, M, Sneath, RW, Phillips, VR, Misselbrook, TH & Pain, BF (1995) A farm–scale study on the use of clinoptilolite zeolite and De–Odorase for reducing odour and ammonia emissions from intensive fattening piggeries. Bioresource Technology 51, 163–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakke, OM (1969) Urinary simple phenols in rats fed diets containing different amounts of casein and 10% tyrosine. Journal of Nutrition 98, 217–221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bakker, GCM (1996) Interaction between carbohydrates and fat in pig diets; impact on energy evaluation of feeds. PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Banwart, WL & Bremmer, MJ (1975) Identification of sulfur gases evolved from animal manures. Journal of Environmental Quality 4, 363–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barth, CL, Hill, DT & Polkowski, LB (1974) Correlating odour intensity index and odorous components in stored dairy manure. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 17, 742–747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beard, WL & Guenzi, WD (1983) Volatile sulfur compounds from a redox-controlled cattle-manure slurry. Journal of Environmental Quality 12, 113–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bisaillon, JG, Beaudet, R, Lépine, F & Sylvestre, M (1994) Microbiological study of the carboxylation of phenols by methanogenic fermentation: a summary. Water Pollution Research Journal of Canada 29, 117–127.Google Scholar
Blair, J, de Lange, K, Gillis, A & Feng, C (1999) Feeding Low Protein Finishing Diets to Reduce Nitrogen Excretion with Pig Manure. p. 12. Guelph, Canada: University of Guelph, Ontario Swine Research.Google Scholar
Bonnarme, P, Lapadatescu, C, Yvon, M & Spinnler, HE (2001) L –Methionine degradation potentialities of cheese–ripening microorganisms. Journal of Dairy Research 68, 663–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bouchard, R & Conrad, HR (1973) Sulphur requirement of lactating dairy cows 2: utilization of sulfates, molasses, and lignin–sulfonate. Journal of Dairy Science 56, 1429–1434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Britz, ML & Wilkinson, RG (1983) Partial purification and characterization of two enzymes involved in isovaleric acid synthesis in Clostridium bifermentans. Journal of General Microbiology 129, 3227–3237.Google ScholarPubMed
Brot, N, Smit, Z & Weissbach, H (1965) Conversion of l –tyrosine to phenol by Clostridium tetanomorphum. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 112, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canh, TT, Aarnink, AJA, Mroz, Z, Jongbloed, AW, Schrama, JW & Verstegen, MWA (1998 a) Influences of electrolyte balance and acidifying calcium salts in the diet of growing-finishing pigs on urinary pH, slurry pH and ammonia volatilisation from slurry. Livestock Production Science 56, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canh, TT, Aarnink, AJA, Schutte, JB, Sutton, A, Langhout, DJ & Verstegen, MWA (1998 b) Dietary protein affects nitrogen excretion and ammonia emission from slurry of growing–finishing pigs. Livestock Production Science 56, 181–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canh, TT, Aarnink, AJA, Verstegen, MWA & Schrama, JW (1998 c) Influences of dietary factors on the pH and ammonia emissions of slurry from growing–finishing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 76, 1123–1130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canh, TT, Sutton, AL, Aarnink, AJA, Verstegen, MWA, Schrama, JW & Bakker, GCM (1998 d) Dietary carbohydrates alter faecal composition and pH and ammonia emission from slurry of growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 76, 1887–1895.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canh, TT, Verstegen, MWA, Aarnink, AJA & Schrama, JW (1997) Influence of dietary factors on nitrogen portioning and composition of urine and faeces of fattening pigs. Journal of Animal Science 75, 700–706.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capel, ID, Millburn, P & Williams, RT (1974) The conjugation of 1– and 2–naphthols and other phenols in the cat and pig. Xenobiotica 4, 601–615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, A, Liao, PH & Lo, KV (1994) Headspace analysis of malodorous compounds from swine waste water under aerobic treatment. Bioresource Technology 49, 83–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chin, HW & Lindsay, RC (1994) Ascorbate and transition-metal mediation of methanethiol oxidation to dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl trisulfide. Food Chemistry 49, 387–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chung, KL, Anderson, GM & Fulk, GE (1975) Formation of indoleacetic acid by intestinal anaerobes. Journal of Bacteriology 124, 573–575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Claesson, R, Edlund, MB, Persson, S & Carlsson, J (1990) Production of volatile sulfur compounds by various Fusobacterium species. Oral Microbiology and Immunology 5, 137–142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clanton, CJ & Schmidt, DR (2001) Sulfur compounds in gases emitted from stored manure. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 43, 1229–1239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colina, JJ, Lewis, AJ, Miller, PS & Fischer, RL (2001) Dietary manipulation to reduce aerial ammonia concentrations in nursery pig facilities. Journal of Animal Science 79, 3096–3103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, P & Cornforth, IS (1978) Volatile fatty acids in stored animal slurry. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 29, 19–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cromwell, GL & Coffey, RD (1994) Nutritional Technologies to Reduce the Nutrient Content of Swine Manure. Des Moines, IA: National Park Board.Google Scholar
Cromwell, GL, Turner, LW, Gates, RS, Taraba, JL, Lindemann, MD, Traylor, SL, Dozier, WA III & Monegue, HJ (1999) Manipulation of swine diets to reduce gaseous emissions from manure that contributes to odour. Journal of Animal Science 77, Suppl. 1, 69 Abstr.Google Scholar
Curtis, SE (1993) Environmental Management in Animal Agriculture. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.Google Scholar
DeCamp, SA, Hill, BE, Hankins, SL, Bundy, DC & Powers, WJ (2001) Effects of soybean hulls in commercial diet on pig performance, manure composition, and selected air quality parameters in swine facilities. Journal of Animal Science 79, Suppl. 1, 252 Abstr.Google Scholar
DeMoss, RD & Moser, K (1969) Tryptophanase in diverse bacterial species. Journal of Bacteriology 98, 167–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dierick, NA, Vervaeke, IJ, Demeyer, DI & Decuypere, JA (1989) Approach to the energetic importance of fibre digestion in pigs. Importance of fermentation in the overall energy supply. Animal Feed Science and Technology 23, 141–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donham, KJ (2000) The concentration of swine production. Effects on swine health, productivity, human health and the environment. Veterinary Clinician of North America. Food Animal Practice 16, 559–597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donham, KJ, Haglind, P, Petersen, Y, Rylander, R & Berlin, L (1989) Environmental health studies of farm workers in Swedish confinement buildings. British Journal of Industrial Medicine 46, 31–37.Google ScholarPubMed
Donham, KJ, Knap, LW, Monson, R & Gustafson, K (1982) Acute toxic exposure to gases from liquid manure. Journal of Occupation Medicine 24, 142–145.Google ScholarPubMed
Dorland, W (2003) Health Library. Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. W.B. Saunders, Harcourt Health Services. www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_home.jspGoogle Scholar
Drasar, BS & Hill, MJ (1974) Human Intestinal Flora. London, New York, and San Francisco: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Elsden, SR & Hilton, MG (1978) Volatile acid production from threonine, valine, leucine and iso-leucine by clostridia. Archives of Microbiology 117, 165–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elsden, SR, Hilton, MG & Waller, JM (1976) The end products of the metabolism of aromatic amino acids by clostridia. Archives of Microbiology 107, 283–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engehard, WV (1995) Absorption of short chain fatty acids from the large intestine In Physiological and Clinical Aspects of Short Chain Fatty Acid Metabolism, pp. 149–170. [Cummings, JH, Rombeau, JL and Sakata, T, editors]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
European Committee for Standardization (2003) CEN Standard 13725. Air Quality – Determination of Odour Concentration by Dynamic Olfactometry. Brussels, Belgium: European Committee for Standardization.Google Scholar
Ferchichi, M, Hemme, D & Nardi, M (1985) Production of methanethiol from methionine by Brevibacterium linens CNRZ 918. Journal of General Microbiology 131, 715–723.Google ScholarPubMed
Geypens, B, Claus, D, Evenepoel, P, Hiele, M, Maes, B, Peeters, M, Rutgeerts, P & Ghoos, Y (1997) Influence of dietary protein supplements on the formation of bacterial metabolites in the colon. Gut 41, 70–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giusi-Perier, A, Fiszlelewicz, M & Rerat, A (1989) Influence of diet composition on intestinal volatile fatty acids and nutrient absorption in unanesthetized pigs. Journal of Animal Science 67, 386–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goa, Y, Rideout, T, Lackeyram, D, Archbold, T, Fan, MZ, Squires, EJ, Duns, G, de Lange, CFM & Smith, TK (1999) Manipulation of hindgut fermentation to reduce the excretion of selected odor–causing compounds in pigs. In Symposium of the Hog Environmental Management Strategy (HEMS). Agriculture and Agri-food Canada Ottawa, Ontario http://www.cpc-ccp.com/HEMS/proceedings.PDFGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, S, Cardash, H, Browning, HI, Sahly, H & Rosenberg, M (1997) Isolation of Enterobacteriaceae from the mouth and potential association with malodor. Journal of Dental Research 76, 1770–1775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, S, Kozlovsky, A, Gordon, D, Gelernter, I, Sintov, A & Rosenberg, M (1994) Cadaverine as a putative component of oral malodour. Journal of Dental Research 73, 1168–1172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gralapp, AK, Powers, WJ, Faust, MA & Bundy, DS (2002) Effects of dietary ingredients on manure characteristics and odorous emissions from swine. Journal of Animal Science 80, 1512–1519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gummalla, S & Broadbent, JR (2001) Tyrosine and phenylalanine catabolism by Lactobacillus cheese flavor adjuncts. Journal of Dairy Science 84, 1011–1019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hahn, JD, Biehl, RR & Baker, DH (1995) Ideal digestible lysine level for early– and late–finishing swine. Journal of Animal Science 73, 773–784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammond, EG, Heppner, C & Smith, R (1989) Odors of swine waste lagoons. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 25, 103–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawe, SM, Walker, N & Moss, BW (1992) The effects of dietary fibre, lactose and antibiotic on the levels of skatole and indole in faeces and subcutaneous fat in growing pigs. Animal Production 54, 413–419.Google Scholar
Hengemuehle, SM & Yokoyama, MT (1990) Isolation and characterization of an anaerobe from swine cecal contents which produces 3–methylindole and 4–methylphenol. Journal of Animal Science 68, 408A.Google Scholar
Hobbs, JP, Brian, FP, Roger, MK & Lee, PA (1996) Reduction of odorous compounds in fresh pig slurry by dietary control of crude protein. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 74, 508–514.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobbs, PJ, Misselbrook, TH & Cumby, TR (1999) Production and emission of odours and gases from aging pig waste. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 72, 291–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobbs, PJ, Misselbrook, TH & Pain, BF (1997) Characterisation of odorous compounds and emissions from slurries produced from weaner pigs fed dry feed and liquid diets. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 73, 437–445.3.0.CO;2-7>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobbs, PJ, Misselbrook, TH & Pain, BF (1998) Emission rates of odorous compounds from pig slurries. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 77, 341–348.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Honeyfield, DC & Carlson, JR (1990) Assay for the enzymatic conversion of indoleacetic acid to 3–methylindole in a ruminal Lactobacillus species. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 56, 724–729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hori, H, Takabayashi, K, Orvis, L, Carson, DA & Nobori, T (1996) Gene cloning and characterization of Pseudomonas putida l -methionine-α-deamino-gamma-mercaptomethane-lyase. Cancer Research 56, 2116–2122.Google ScholarPubMed
Ichihara, K, Yoshimatsu, H& Sakamoto, Y (1956) Studies on phenol formation. 3. Ammonium and potassium ions as the activator of beta–tyrosinase. Journal of Biochemistry 43, 803.Google Scholar
Inoue, H, Inagaki, K, Sugimoto, M, Esaki, N, Soda, K & Tanaka, H (1995) Structural analysis of the l -methionine gamma-lyase gene from Pseudomonas putida. Journal of Biochemistry 117, 1120–1125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iverson, M, Kirychuk, S, Drost, IL & Jacobson, (2000) Human health effects of dust exposure in animal confinement buildings. Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health 6, 283–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackman, PJH (1982) Body odour – the role of skin bacteria. Seminars in Dermatology 1, 143–148.Google Scholar
Jacob, JP, Blair, R, Benett, DC, Scott, T & Newbery, R (1994) The effects of dietary protein and amino acid levels during the grower phase on nitrogen excretion of broiler chickens. In Proceedings of the 29th Pacific Norhwest Animal Nutrition Conference, p. 137. Vancouver, B.C., Canada.Google Scholar
Jacobson, LD, Clanton, CJ, Schmidt, DR, Radman, C, Nicolai, RE & Janni, KA (1997) Comparison of hydrogen sulfide and odor emissions from animal manure storages. In International Symposium on Ammonia and Odour Control from Animal Production Facilities, 6–10 10 1997, Winkleloord, The Netherlands. 405–412. [Voermans, JAM and Rosmalen, GJ, editors]. Rosmalen, The Netherlands: NVTL.Google Scholar
Jensen, BB & Jørgensen, H (1994) Effect of dietary fibre on microbial activity and microbial gas production in various regions of the gastrointestinal tract of pigs. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 60, 1897–1904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ji-Qin, N, Albert, JH, Claude, AD & Teng, TL (2000) Ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide release from pig manure in under-floor deep pits. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 77, 53–66.Google Scholar
Jongbloed, AW (1987) Phosphorus in the feeding of pigs; effect of diet on the absorption and retention of phosphorous by growing pigs. PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Lelystad, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Jongbloed, AW & Lenis, NP (1993) Excretion of nitrogen and some minerals by livestock In Nitrogen Flow in Pig Production and Environmental Consequences. European Association for Animal Production publication no. 69, pp. 22–36. [Verstegen, MWA, den Hartog, LA and van Kempen, GJM, editors]. Wageningen, The Netherlands: EAAP.Google Scholar
Jørgensen, H & Just, A (1998) Effect of different dietary components on site of absorption/site of disappearance of nutrients In Fourth International Seminar at the Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition. pp. 230–239. [Buraczewska, L, Buraczewski, S, Pastuszewska, B and Zebrowska, T, editors]. Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Kadota, H & Ishida, Y (1972) Production of volatile sulfur compounds by microorganims. Annual Review of Microbiology 26, 127–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kay, RM & Lee, PA (1997) Ammonia emission from pig buildings and characteristics of slurry produced by pigs offered low crude protein diets. In International Symposium on Ammonia and Odour Control from Animal Production Facilities. pp. 253–259. [Voermans, JAM and Monteny, GJ, editors]. Rosmalen, The Netherlands: NVTL.Google Scholar
Kelly, DP, Wood, AP, Jordan, SL, Padden, AN, Gorlenko, VM & Dubinina, GA (1994) Biological production and consumption of gaseous organic sulphur compounds. Biochemical Society Transactions 22, 1011–1015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendall, DC, Richert, BT, Sutton, AL, Frank, JWDeCamp, SA, Bowers, KA, Kelly, DT & Cobb, M (1999) Effects of fibre addition (10% soybean hulls) to a reduced crude protein diet supplemented with synthetic amino acids versus a standard commercial diet on the performance, pit composition, odour and ammonia levels in swine buildings. Journal of Animal Science 77, Suppl., 176 Abstr.Google Scholar
Kenealy, WRCao, Y & Weimer, PJ (1995) Production of caproic acid by cocultures of ruminal cellulolytic bacteria and Clostridium kluyveri grown on cellulose and ethanol. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 44, 507–513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerr, BJ (1995) Proceedings of New Horizons in Animal Nutrition and Health. p. 47. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University.Google Scholar
Kerr, BJMcKeith, FK & Easter, RA (1995) Effect on performance and carcass characteristics of nursery to finisher pigs fed reduced crude protein, amino acid-supplemented diets. Journal of Animal Science 73, 433–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klarenbeek, JVJongebreur, AA & Beumer, SCC (1982) Odour Emission in Pig Fattening Sheds. Wageningen, The Netherlands: IMAG.Google Scholar
Knarreborg, A, Beck, J, Jensen, MT, Laue, A, Agergaard, N & Jensen, BB (2002) Effect of non-starch polysaccharides on production and absorption of indolic compounds in entire male pigs. Animal Science 74, 445–453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kowalewsky, HH, Scheu, R & Vetter, H (1980) Measurement of odour emissions and emissions In Effluent from Livestock, pp. 609–626. [Gasser, LKE, editor]. London: Applied Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Kreis, W & Hession, C (1973) Isolation and purification of L –methionine–alpha–deamino–gamma–mercaptomethane–lyase ( l –methioninase) from Clostridium sporogenes. Cancer Research 33, 1862–1865.Google ScholarPubMed
Liu, QDSB, Bundy, DS & Hoff, SJ (1993) Utilizing ammonia concentrations as an odour threshold indicator for swine facilities. In IVth International Symposium on Livestock Environment, pp. 678–685. [Collins, C and Boon, C, editors]. St Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.Google Scholar
Loesche, WJ & Gibbons, RJ (1968) Amino acid fermentation by Fusobacterium nucleatum. Archives of Oral Biology 13, 191–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez, J, Goodband, RD, Allee, GL, Jesse, GW, Nelssen, JL, Tokach, MD, Spiers, D & Becker, BA (1994) The effects of diets formulated on an ideal protein basis on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and thermal balance of finishing gilts housed in a hot, diurnal environment. Journal of Animal Science 72, 367–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lunn, F & van de Vyver, J (1977) Sampling and analysis of air in pig houses. Agriculture and Environment 3, 159–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGill, AEJ & Jackson, N (1977) Changes in short chain carboxylic acid content and chemical oxygen demand of stored pig slurry. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 28, 424–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackie, RI (1994) Microbial production of odor components In International Round Table on Swine Odor Control, pp. 18–19. Ames, IA: Iowa State University.Google Scholar
Mackie, RI, Stroot, PG & Varel, VH (1998) Biochemical identification and biological origin of key odour components in livestock waste. Journal of Animal Science 76, 1331–1342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mellon, FA (1994) Mass spectroscopy In Spectroscopic Techniques for Food Analysis, pp. 181–219. [Wilson, RH, editor]. New York: VCH Publishers.Google Scholar
Mikkelsen, LL & Jensen, BB (1996) Growth and skatole (3-methylindole) production by Clostridium scatologenes grown in batch and continuous cultures. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 81, XVIII.Google Scholar
Miner, JR (1995) A Review of the Literature on the Nature and Control of Odors from Pork Production Facilities, pp. 118. Corvallis, OR: Bioresource Engineering Department, Oregon State University.Google Scholar
Miner, JR, Kelly, MD & Anderson, AW (1975) Identification and measurement of volatile compounds within a swine building and measurement of ammonia evolution rates from manure–covered surfaces. In Managing Livestock Wastes, Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Livestock Wastes, ASAE Proc–275, pp. 351–353. St Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.Google Scholar
Misselbrook, TH, Clarkson, CR & Pain, BF (1993) Relationship between concentration and intensity of odours for pig slurry and broiler houses. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 55, 163–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moeser, AJ, van Heugten, T& [van Kempen, T (2001) Diet composition affects odor characteristics from swine manure. In NCSU Annual Swine Report [van Heugten, E, Rozeboom, K & See, T, editors]. http://mark.asci.ncsu.edu/SwineReports/2001/01manadam.htpGoogle Scholar
Mogens, TJ, Raymond, PC & Bent, BJ (1995) 3–-Methylindole (skatole) and indole production by mixed populations of pigs fecal bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 61, 3180–3184.Google Scholar
Morgan, CA & Whittemore, CT (1998) Dietary fibre and nitrogen excretion and retention by pigs. Animal Feed Science and Technology 19, 185–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, RT & Boyd, RN (1987) Organic Chemistry, 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Mortensen, PB, Holtug, K & Rasmussen, HS (1987) Short-chain fatty acid production from mono and disaccharides in a fecal incubating system: implications for colonic fermentation of dietary fiber in humans. Nutrition Journal 118, 321–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mroz, Z, Jongbloed, AW, Partanen, KH, Vreman, K, Kemme, PA & Kogut, J (2000) The effect of calcium benzoate in diets with or without organic acids on dietary buffering capacity, apparent digestibility, retention of nutrients, and manure characteristics in swine. Journal of Animal Science 78, 2622–2632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Müller, HL & Kirchgessner, M (1995) Energetische verwertung von pektin bei sauen. Zeitschrift für Tierphysiologie, Tierenährung und Futtermittelkde 54, 14–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nahm, KH (2002) Efficient feed nutrient utilization to reduce pollutants in poultry and swine manure. Animal Science 32, 1–16 Abstr.Google Scholar
Nakano, Y, Yoshimura, M & Koga, T (2002) Correlation between oral malodor and periodontal bacteria. Microbes and Infection 4, 679–683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nisman, B (1954) The Stickland reaction. Bacteriological Reviews 18, 16–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noren, O (1986) Design and use of bio filter for livestock buildings. In Odour Prevention and Control of Organic Sludge and Livestock Farming, pp. 234–237. [Neilsen, VC, Voorburg, JH and L'Hermite, P, editors]. London: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Obrock, HCMiller, PS & Lewis, AJ (1997) The Effect of Reducing Dietary Crude Protein Concentration on Odour in Swine Facilities, Nebraska Swine Report, pp. 14–16. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska-Lincoln.Google Scholar
Odam, EM, Page, JMJ, Townsend, MG & Wilkins, JPG (1986) Identification of volatile components in headspace from animal slurries In Odour Prevention and Control of Organic Sludge and Livestock Farming, pp. 284–295 [Nielsen, VC, Voorburg, JH, L'Hermite, P, editors] London: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Ogink, NWM & Groot Koerkamp, PWG (2001) Comparison of odour emissions from animal housing systems with low ammonia emission. Water Science and Technology 43, 245–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ohkishi, H, Nishikawa, D, Kumagai, H & Yamada, H (1981) Distribution of cysteine desulfhydrase in microorganisms. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 45, 253–257.Google Scholar
Ohta, Y & Kuwada, Y (1998) Rapid deodorization of cattle faeces by microorganisms. Biological Wastes 24, 227–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oldenburg, J (1989) Geruchs– und Ammoniak– Emissionen aus der Tierhaltung. In Munster-Hiltrup, Herausgegebe vom, Kuratorium für Technik und Bauwensen in der Landwirtschaft e.v. 6100 Darmstadt-Kranichstein.Google Scholar
Oldenburg, J & Heinrichs, P (1996) Quantitative Aspecte einer proteinreduzierten Schweinemast (Quantitative aspects of a protein–reduced pig fattening). Lohamann Information 1, 13–16.Google Scholar
O'Neill, DH & Phillips, VRA (1992) Review of the control of odour nuisance from livestock buildings. Part 3: properties of the odorous substances which have been identified in livestock wastes or in the air around them. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 53, 23–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Otto, ER, Yokoyama, M, Von Bermuth, RD, van Kempen, T & Trottier, NL (2003) Ammonia, volatile fatty acids, phenolics and odour offensiveness in manure from growing pigs fed diets reduced in protein concentration. Journal of Animal Science 81, 1754–1763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pain, BF, Misselbrook, TH, Clarkson, CR & Rees, YJ (1990) Odour and ammonia emission following the spreading of anaerobically-digested pig slurry on grassland. Biological Wastes 34, 149–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parliment, TH, Kolor, MG & Rizzo, DJ (1982) Volatile components of Limburger cheese. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 30, 1006–1008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patni, NK & Clarke, SP (1990) Transient hazardous conditions in animal buildings due to manure gas released during slurry mixing In Sixth International Symposium on Agricultural and Food Processing Wastes, pp. 449–459. [Engineers, ASOA, editors]. St Joseph, MI: American Society of Agriculture Engineers.Google Scholar
Phillips, D, Fattori, M & Bulley, R (1979) Swine manure odours: sensory and physico–chemical analysis Joint Meeting of ASAE and CSAE Winnipeg.Google Scholar
Phillips, VR, Pain, BF, Clarkson, CR & Klarenbeek, JV (1990) Studies on reducing the odour and ammonia emissions during and after the land spreading of animal slurries. Farm Building Engineering 7, 17–23.Google Scholar
Punter, PH, Koster, EP, Schaefer, J & Maiwald, KD (1986) Odour concentration and odour annoyance. In Odour Prevention and Control of Organic Sludge and Livestock Farming, pp. 146–152. [Nielsen, VC, Voorburg, JH, L'Hermite, P]. London: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, HS, Holtug, K & Mortensen, PB (1988) Degradation of amino acids to short–chain fatty acids in humans. An in vitro study. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 23, 178–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ren, Y (1999) Is carbonyl sulfide a precursor for carbon disulfide in vegetation and soil? Interconversion of carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide in fresh grain tissues in vitro. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47, 2141–2144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ritter, WF (1989) Odour control of livestock wastes: state-of-the-art in North America. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 42, 51–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawyer, CH & McCarty, PL (1978) Sulfate. In Chemistry for Environmental Engineering, pp. 476–481. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., chapter 28.Google Scholar
Schaefer, J (1977) Sampling, characterization and analysis of malodours. Agriculture and Environment 3, 121–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaefer, J (1980) Development of instrumental methods for measuring odour levels in intensive livestock building. In Effluents from Livestock, 513–534. [Gasser, LKE, editor]. London: Applied Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Schaefer, J, Bemelnans, JMH & ten Noever de Brauw, MC (1974) Research into the components responsible for the smell of piggeries. Landbouwkundig Tijdschrift 86, 228–232.Google Scholar
Schenker, M, Christiani, D & Cormier, Y (1998) Respiratory health hazards in agriculture. American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine 158, Suppl., S1–S76.Google Scholar
Schenker, M, Ferguson, T & Gamsky, T (1991) Respiratory risks associated with agriculture. Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews 6, 415–428.Google ScholarPubMed
Schirz, S (1986) Design and experience obtained with bio-scrubbers. In Odour Prevention and Control of Organic Sludge and Livestock Farming. pp. 241–250. [Neilsen, VC, Voorburg, JH and L'Hermite, P, editors]. London: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Schlegel, HG (1986) General Microbiology: Cambridge, UKCambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, S, Mohamed, ME & Fuchs, G (1997) Anaerobic metabolism of l –phenylalanine via benzoyl–CoA in the denitrifying bacterium Thauera aromatica. Archives of Microbiology 168, 310–320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulte, DDKottwitz, DA & Gilbertson, CB (1985) Nitrogen content of scraped swine manure. In Vth International Symposium on Agricultural Waste, Chicago, pp. 321–328. [Converse, JC, editor]. St Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.Google Scholar
Segal, W & Starkey, RL (1969) Microbial decomposition of methionine and identity of the resulting sulfur products. Journal of Bacteriology 98, 908–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shi, XS & Noblet, J (1993) Contribution of the hindgut to digestion of diets in growing pigs and adult sows: effect of diet composition. Livestock Production Science 34, 237–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shriver, JA, Carter, SD, Sutton, AL, Richert, BT, Senne, BW & Pettey, LA (2003) Effects of adding fiber sources to reduced-crude protein, amino acid-supplemented diets on nitrogen excretion, growth performance, and carcass traits of finishing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 81, 492–502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, GM, Kim, BW, Franke, AA & Roberts, JD (1985) 13C NMR studies of butyric fermentation in Clostridium kluyveri. Biology and Chemistry 260, 13509–13512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, RL & Williams, RT (1966) Glucuronic Acid. Free and Combined. New York and London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Sommer, SG & Husted, S (1995) The chemical buffer system in raw and digested animal slurry. Journal of Agricultural Science 124, 45–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spoelstra, SF (1976) Simple phenols and indoles in anaerobically stored piggery wastes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 28, 415–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spoelstra, SF (1979) Microbial aspect of the formation of malodorous compounds in anaerobically stored piggery wastes. PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spoelstra, SF (1980) Origin of objectionable odorous components in piggery wastes and the possibility of applying indicator components for studying odour development. Agriculture and Environment 5, 241–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stadtman, TC (1963) Anaerobic degradation of lysine. 2. Cofactor requirements and properties of the soluble enzyme system. Biology and Chemistry 238, 2766–2773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, RJ, Laughlin, RJ & Frost, JP (1989) Effect of acidification with sulphuric acid on the volatilization of ammonia from cow and pig slurries. Journal of Agricultural Science 113, 389–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, RJ, Laughlin, RJ & Frost, JP (1993) Effects of diet and storage time on the concentration of sulphides on dairy cow slurry. Bioresource Technology 45, 13–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stryer, L (1995) Biochemistry, 4th ed. New York: W.H. Freeman.Google Scholar
Susan, SS, Jeanette, LB & James, HR (2001) Quantification of odors and odorants from swine operations in North Carolina. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 108, 213–240.Google Scholar
Sutton, AL, Kephart, KB, Patterson, JA, Mumma, R, Kelly, DT, Bous, E, Don, BS, Jones, DD & Heber, AJ (1997) Dietary manipulation to reduce ammonia and odorous compounds in excreta and anaerobic manure storage. In International Symposium on Ammonia and Odour Control from Animal Production Facilities. pp. 245–252. [Voermans, JAM and Monteny, GJ, editors]. Rosmalen, The Netherlands: NVTL.Google Scholar
Sutton, AL, Kephart, KB, Verstegen, MWA, Canh, TT & Hobbs, PJ (1999) Potential for reduction of odorous compounds in swine manure through diet modification. Journal of Animal Science 77, 430–439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutton, AL, Patterson, JA, Adeola, OL, Richert, BA, Kelly, DT, Heber, AJ, Kephart, KB, Mumma, R & Bogus, E (1998) Reducing sulfur-containing odours through diet manipulation. In Animal Production Systems and the Environment, pp. 125–130. Des Moines, IA: Iowa State University.Google Scholar
Suzuki, K, Benno, Y, Mitsuoka, T, Takebe, S, Kobashi, K & Hase, J (1979) Urease-producing species of intestinal anaerobes and their activities. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 37, 379–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turton, LJ, Drucker, DB & Ganguli, LA (1983) Effect of glucose concentration in the growth medium upon neutral and acidic fermentation end-products of Clostridium bifermentans, Clostridium sporogenes and Peptostreptococcus anaerobius. Journal of Medical Microbiology 16, 61–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Peet-Schwering, CMC, Verdoes, CMC, Voermans, MP & Beelen, GM (1996) Effect of Feeding and Housing on the Ammonia Emission of Growing and Finishing Pig Facilities, report no. P1.145. Rosemalen, The Netherlands: Research Institute for Pig Husbandry.Google Scholar
van Geelen, M & van der Hoek, KW (1985) Odour Abatement Techniques for Intensive Livestock Units. AFRC Engineering Translation, no. 535 Silsoe, Bedford, UK: AFRG Institute of Engineering Research.Google Scholar
van Heugten, E & van Kempen, TA (2002) Growth performance, carcass characteristics, nutrient digestibility and fecal odorous compounds in growing-finishing pigs fed diets containing hydrolyzed feather meal. Journal of Animal Science 80, 171–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Soest, P (1983) Nutrition Ecology of the Ruminant. Corvallis, OR: O&B Books, Inc.Google Scholar
Varel, VH, Bryant, MP, Holdeman, LV & Moore, WEC (1974) Isolation of ureolytic Peptostreptococcus productus from feces using defined medium; failure of common urease test. Journal of Applied Microbiology 28, 594–599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VDI (1997 a) Guideline 3882, part 1, Determination of Odour Intensity. Düsseldorf, Germany: VDI.Google Scholar
VDI (1997 b) Guideline 3882, part 2, Determination of Hedonic Tone. Düsseldorf, Germany: VDI.Google Scholar
Verdoes, N & Ogink, NWM (1997) Odour emission from pig houses with low ammonia emission In International Symposium on Ammonia and Odour Control from Pig Production Facilities, Winkeloord, The Netherlands 252–317. [Voermans, JAM and Monteny, GJ, editors]. Rosmalen, The Netherlands: NVTL.Google Scholar
Wathes, CM, Jones, JB, Kristensen, HH, Jones, EKM & Webster, AJF (2002) Aversion of pigs and domestic fowl to atmospheric ammonia. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 45, 1605–1610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, AG (1984) Indicators of piggery slurry odour offensiveness. Agricultural Waste 10, 15–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, AG & Evans, MR (1981) Storage of piggery slurry. Agricultural Waste 3, 311–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winneke, G (1992) Structure and determinants of psychological response to odorant/irritation air pollution. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 641, 261–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wozny, MA, Bryant, MP, Holdeman, LV & Moore, WEC (1977) Urease assay and urease-producing species of anaerobes in the bovine rumen and human feces. Journal of Applied Microbiology 33, 1097–1104.Google ScholarPubMed
Yasuhara, A, Fuwa, K & Jimbu, M (1984) Identification of odorous compounds in fresh and rotten swine manure. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 48, 3001–3010.Google Scholar
Yokoyama, MT & Carlson, JR (1974) Dissimilation of tryptophan and related compounds by ruminal microorganisms in vivo. Journal of Applied Microbiology 27, 540–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yokoyama, MT, Carlson, JR & Holdeman, LV (1977) Isolation and characteristics of a skatole-producing Lactobacillus sp. from the bovine rumen. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 6, 837–842.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshimura, M, Nakano, Y, Yamashita, Y, Oho, T, Saito, T & Koga, T (2000) Formation of methyl mercaptan from l -methionine by Porphyromonas gingivalis. Infection and Immunity 68, 6912–6916.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Younes, H, Remesy, C, Behr, S & Demigne, C (1997) Fermentable carbohydrate exerts a urea-lowering effect in normal and nephrectomized rat. American Journal of Physiology 272, 515–521.Google Scholar
Zahn, JA, DiSpirito, AA, Do, YS, Brooks, BE, Cooper, EE & Hatfield, JL (2001) Correlation of human olfactory responses to airborne concentrations of malodorous volatile organic compounds emitted from swine effluent. Journal of Environmental Quality 30, 624–634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahn, JA, Hatfield, JL, Do, YS, DiSpirito, AA, Laird, DA & Pfeiffer, RL (1997) Characterisation of volatile organic emissions and wastes from a swine production facility. Journal of Environmental Quality 26, 1687–1696.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zervas, S & Zijlstra, RT (2002) Effects of dietary protein and oat hull fibre on nitrogen excretion patterns and plasma urea in grower pigs. Journal of Animal Science 80, 3238–3246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhu, J (2000) A review of microbiology in swine manure odor control. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 78, 93–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zijlstra, RT, Oryschak, MA, Zervas, S & Ekpe, DE (2001) Diet manipulation to reduce nutrient content in swine manure Focus on the Future Conference Alberta, Canada Red Deer http://triumph.usask.ca/psc/pdf/psc/69.pdfGoogle Scholar