Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T21:29:03.125Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Influence of dietary components on development of the microbiota in single-stomached species

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

Eva Bauer ,
Barbara A Williams ,
Hauke Smidt ,
Rainer Mosenthin  and
Martin W. A Verstegen
Eva Bauer*
Affiliation:
Institute of Animal Nutrition, University of Hohenheim, Emil-Wolff-Strasse 10, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany Animal Nutrition Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Marijkeweg 40, 6709 PG, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Barbara A Williams
Affiliation:
Animal Nutrition Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Marijkeweg 40, 6709 PG, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Hauke Smidt
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Hesselink van Suchtelenweg 4, 6703 CT, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Rainer Mosenthin
Affiliation:
Institute of Animal Nutrition, University of Hohenheim, Emil-Wolff-Strasse 10, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
Martin W. A Verstegen
Affiliation:
Animal Nutrition Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Marijkeweg 40, 6709 PG, Wageningen, The Netherlands
*
*Corresponding author: Dr Eva Bauer, fax +49 711 459 2421, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

After birth, development of a normal microbial community occurs gradually, and is affected by factors such as the composition of the maternal gut microbiota, the environment, and the host genome. Diet also has a direct influence, both on composition and activity of this community. This influence begins with the milk, when specific components exert their growth-promoting effect on a beneficial microbiota, thereby suppressing potential pathogens. For example, breast-fed infants compared with formula-fed babies usually have a microbial community dominated by bifidobacteria. When solid food is introduced (weaning), dramatic changes in microbial composition occur, so pathogens can gain access to the disturbed gastrointestinal (GI) ecosystem. However, use of specific dietary components can alter the composition and activity of the microbiota positively. Of all dietary components, fermentable carbohydrates seem to be most promising in terms of promoting proliferation of beneficial bacterial species. Carbohydrate fermentation results in the production of SCFA which are known for their trophic and health-promoting effects. Fermentation of proteins, on the other hand, is often associated with growth of potential pathogens, and results in production of detrimental substances including NH3 and amines. In terms of the GI microbiota, lipids are often associated with the antimicrobial activity of medium-chain fatty acids and their derivatives. The present review aims to provide deeper insights into the composition and development of the neonatal GI microbiota, how this microbiota can be influenced by certain dietary components, and how this might ultimately lead to improvements in host health.

Keywords

DietFermentationGastrointestinal tractMicrobial communitySingle-stomached species
Type
Research Article
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 19 , Issue 1 , June 2006 , pp. 63 - 78
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2006

References

Adrian, J (1976) Gums and hydrocolloids in nutrition. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 25, 189–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amann, RI, Ludwig, W & Schleifer, KH (1995) Phylogenetic identification and in situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation. Microbiological Reviews 59, 143–169.Google Scholar
Balmer, SE, Hanvey, LS & Wharton, BA (1994) Diet and faecal flora in the newborn: nucleotides. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 70F, 137–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balmer, SE & Wharton, BA (1989) Diet and faecal flora in the newborn: breast milk and infant formula. Archives of Disease in Childhood 64, 1672–1677.Google Scholar
Barrow, PA. (1992) Probiotics for chicken. In Probiotics: The Scientific Approach, pp. 225–259 [Fuller, R editor] London: Chapman and Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, E, Williams, BA, Bosch, MW, Voigt, C, Mosenthin, R & Verstegen, MWA (2004) Differences in microbial activity of digesta from three sections of the porcine large intestine according to in vitro fermentation of carbohydrate-rich substrates. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 84, 2097–2104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, E, Williams, BA, Voigt, C, Mosenthin, R & Verstegen, MWA (2001) Microbial activities of faeces from unweaned and adult pigs, in relation to selected fermentable carbohydrates. Animal Science 73, 313–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beasley, SS & Saris, PEJ (2004) Nisin-producing Lactococcus lactis strains isolated from human milk. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70, 5051–5053.Google Scholar
Beerens, H, Romond, C & Neut, C (1980) Influence of breast-feeding on the bifid flora of the newborn intestine. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 33, 2434–2439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergsson, G, Arnfinnsson, J, Steingrimsson, O & Thormar, H (2001) Killing of Gram-positive cocci by fatty acids and monoglycerides. APMIS: Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica, et Immunologica Scandinavica 109, 670–678.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bezkorovainy, A & Topouzian, N (1981) Bifidobacterium bifidus var. pennsylvanicus growth promoting activity of human milk casein and its derivatives. International Journal of Biochemistry 13, 585–590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boehm, G, Jelinek, J, Stahl, B, Van Laere, K, Knol, J, Fanaro, S, Moro, G, Vigi, V (2004) Prebiotics in infant formulas. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 38, S76–S79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Botham, RL, Ryden, P, Robertson, JA & Ring, SG (1998) Structural features of polysaccharides and their influence on fermentation behaviour. In Functional Properties of Nondigestible Carbohydrates, pp. 46–49 [Guillon, F, editor]. Nantes: INRA.Google Scholar
Brandtzaeg, P (2003) Role of secretory antibodies in the defence against infections. International Journal of Medical Microbiology 293, 3–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brock, JH (1980) Lactoferrin in human milk: its role in iron absorption and protection against enteric infection in the newborn infant. Archives of Disease in Childhood 55, 417–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, EP (2000) Biological activities of bovine glycomacropeptide. British Journal of Nutrition 84, S39–S46.Google Scholar
Brown, I, Warhurst, M, Arcot, J, Playne, M, Illman, RJ & Topping, DL (1997) Fecal numbers of bifidobacteria are higher in pigs fed Bifidobacterium longum with a high amylose cornstarch than with a low amylose cornstarch. Journal of Nutrition 127, 1822–1827.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruininx, EM, Binnendijk, GP, Van der Peet-Schwering, CM, Schrama, JW, Den Hartog, LA, Everts, H & Beynen, AC (2002) Effect of creep feed consumption on individual feed intake characteristics and performance of group-housed weanling pigs. Journal of Animal Science 80, 1413–1418.Google Scholar
Bryant, MP & Robinson, IM (1962) Some nutritional characteristics of predominant culturable ruminal bacteria. Journal of Bacteriology 84, 605–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bullen, CL, Tearle, PV & Willis, AT (1976) Bifidobacteria in the intestinal tract of infants: an in-vivo study. Journal of Medical Microbiology 9, 325–333.Google Scholar
Bullen, JJ (1975) Iron-binding proteins in milk and resistance to Escherichia coli infection in infants. Postgraduate Medical Journal 51, 67–70.Google Scholar
Butler, JE (1998) Immunoglobulin diversity, B-cell and antibody repertoire development in large farm animals. Scientific and Technical Review 17, 43–70.Google ScholarPubMed
Canh, TT, Sutton, AL, Aarnink, AJA, Verstegen, MWA, Schrama, JW & Bakker, GCM (1998) Dietary carbohydrates alter the fecal composition and pH and the ammonia emission from slurry of growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 76, 1887–1895.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canh, TT, Verstegen, MW, Aarnink, AJ & Schrama, JW (1997) Influence of dietary factors on nitrogen partitioning and composition of urine and feces of fattening pigs. Journal of Animal Science 75, 700–706.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, SE (1985) N-acetylneuraminic acid concentrations in human milk oligosaccharides and glycoproteins during lactation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 41, 720–726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carroll, L, Osman, M, Davies, DP & McNeish, AS (1979) Bacteriological criteria for feeding raw breast-milk to babies on neonatal units. Lancet ii, 732–733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Champ, M, Langkilde, A-M, Brouns, F, Kettlitz, B & Le Bail-Collet, Y (2003) Advances in dietary fibre characterisation. 2. Consumption, chemistry, physiology and measurement of resistant starch; implications for health and food labelling. Nutrition Research Reviews 16, 143–161.Google Scholar
Chipman, DM & Sharon, N (1969) Mechanism of lysozyme action. Science 165, 454–465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choct, M & Annison, G (1992) Anti-nutritive effect of wheat pentosans in broiler chickens: roles of viscosity and gut microflora. British Poultry Science 33, 821–834.Google Scholar
Christensen, K & Thorbek, G (1987) Methane excretion in the growing pig. British Journal of Nutrition 57, 355–361.Google Scholar
Chung, KT, Fulk, GE & Silverman, SJ (1977) Dietary effects on the composition of fecal flora of rats. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 33, 654–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, S, Brause, B & Holt, P (1969) Lipolysis and absorption of fat in the rat stomach. Gastroenterology 56, 214–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crittenden, R, Karppinen, S, Ojanen, S, Tenkanen, M, Fagerström, R, Mättö, J, Saarela, M, Mattila-Sandholm, T & Poutanen, K (2002) In vitro fermentation of cereal dietary fibre carbohydrates by probiotic and intestinal bacteria. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 82, 781–789.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummings, JH & Englyst, HN (1987) Fermentation in the human large intestine and the available substrates. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45, 1243–1255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, JH & Macfarlane, GT (1991) The control and consequences of bacterial fermentation in the human colon. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 70, 443–459.Google Scholar
Cummings, JH, Wiggins, HS, Jenkins, DJ, Houston, H, Jivraj, T, Drasar, BS & Hill, MJ (1978) Influence of diets high and low in animal fat on bowel habit, gastrointestinal transit time, fecal microflora, bile acid, and fat excretion. Journal of Clinical Investigation 61, 953–963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dal Bello, F, Walter, J, Hertel, C & Hammes, WP (2001) In vitro study of prebiotic properties of levan-type exopolysaccharides from lactobacilli and non-digestible carbohydrates using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 24, 232–237.Google Scholar
Dänicke, S, Simon, O, Jeroch, H & Bedford, M (1997) Interactions between dietary fat type and xylanase supplementation when rye-based diets are fed to broiler chickens. 1. Physico-chemical chyme features. British Poultry Science 38, 537–545.Google Scholar
Dänicke, S, Vahjen, W, Simon, O & Jeroch, H (1999) Effects of dietary fat type and xylanase supplementation to rye-based broiler diets on selected bacterial groups adhering to the intestinal epithelium, on transit time of feed, and on nutrient digestibility. Poultry Science 78, 1292–1299.Google Scholar
Decuypere, JA & Dierick, NA (2003) The combined use of triacylglycerols containing medium-chain fatty acids and exogenous lipolytic enzymes as an alternative to in-feed antibiotics in piglets: concept, possibilities and limitations. An overview. Nutrition Research Reviews 16, 193–209.Google Scholar
De Lange, CFM (2000) Characterization of the non-starch polysaccharides. In Feed Evaluation – Principles and Practice, pp. 77–92 [Moughan, PJ, Verstegen, MWA and Visser-Reyneveld, MI, editors]. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen Pers.Google Scholar
Dierick, NA, Decuypere, JA, Molly, K, Van Beek, E & Vanderbeke, E (2002 a) The combined use of triacylglycerols containing medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and exogenous lipolytic enzymes as an alternative for nutritional antibiotics in piglet nutrition: I. In vitro screening of the release of MCFAs from selected fat sources by selected exogenous lipolytic enzymes under simulated pig gastric conditions and their effects on the gut flora of piglets. Livestock Production Science 75, 129–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dierick, NA, Decuypere, JA, Molly, K, Van Beek, E & Vanderbeke, E (2000 b) The combined use of triacylglycerols (TAGs) containing medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and exogenous lipolytic enzymes as an alternative to nutritional antibiotics in piglet nutrition: II. In vivo release of MCFAs in gastric cannulated and slaughtered piglets by endogenous and exogenous lipases; effects on the luminal gut flora and growth performance. Livestock Production Science 76, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dongowski, G, Huth, M, Gebhardt, E & Flamme, W (2002) Dietary fiber-rich barley products beneficially affect the intestinal tract of rats. Journal of Nutrition 132, 3704–3714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edde, L, Hipolito, RB, Hwang, FF, Headon, DR, Shalwitz, RA & Sherman, MP (2001) Lactoferrin protects neonatal rats from gut-related systemic infection. American Journal of Physiology, 281G, 1140–1150.Google Scholar
Edney, MJ, Marchylo, BA & MacGregore, AW (1991) Structure of total barley β-glucan. Journal of the Institute of Brewing 97, 39–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, CA & Parrett, AM (2002) Intestinal flora during the first months of life: new perspectives. British Journal of Nutrition 88, S11–S18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eidelman, AI & Szilagyi, G (1979) Patterns of bacterial colonization of human milk. Obstetrics and Gynecology 53, 550–552.Google ScholarPubMed
Ekhart, PF & Timmermans, E (1996) Techniques for the production of transgalactosylated oligosaccharides (TOS). Bulletin/International Dairy Federation 313, 59–64.Google Scholar
Elliot, JI, Senft, B, Erhardt, G & Fraser, D (1984) Isolation of lactoferrin and its concentration in sows' colostrum and milk during a 21-day lactation. Journal of Animal Science 59, 1080–1084.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engfer, MB, Stahl, B, Finke, B, Sawatzki, G & Daniel, H (2000) Human milk oligosaccharides are resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis in the upper gastrointestinal tract. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71, 1589–1596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Englyst, HN, Bingham, SA, Runswick, SA, Collinson, E & Cummings, JH (1989) Dietary fibre (non-starch-polysaccharides) in cereal products. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 2, 253–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Englyst, HN, Kingman, SM & Cummings, JH (1992) Classification and measurement of nutritionally important starch fractions. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46, S33–S50.Google ScholarPubMed
Ewing, WN & Cole, DJA (1994) The Living Gut. Dungannon, UK: Context Publications.Google Scholar
Favier, C, Vaughan, EE, De Vos, WM & Akkermans, ADL (2002) Molecular monitoring of succession of bacterial communities in human neonates. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68, 219–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franklin, MA, Mathew, AG, Vickers, JR & Clift, RA (2002) Characterization of microbial populations and volatile fatty acids concentrations in the jejunum, ileum, and cecum of pigs weaned at 17 vs 24 days of age. Journal of Animal Science 80, 2904–2910.Google Scholar
Fuller, MF, Franklin, MF, McWilliam, R & Pennie, K (1995) The responses of growing pigs, of different sex and genotype, to dietary energy and protein. Animal Science 60, 291–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaskins, HR (2001) Intestinal bacteria and their influence on swine growth. In Swine Nutrition, 2nd ed., pp. 585–608 [Lewis, AJ and Southern, LL, editors]. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press LLC.Google Scholar
Gavin, A & Ostovar, K (1977) Microbiological characterization of human milk. Journal of Food Protection 40, 614–616.Google Scholar
Gibson, GR & Roberfroid, MB (1995) Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. Journal of Nutrition 125, 1401–1412.Google Scholar
Gil, A, Corral, E, Martínez-Valverde, A & Molina, JA (1986) Effects of the addition of nucleotides to an adapted milk formula on the microbial pattern of faeces in at term newborn infants. Journal of Clinical Nutrition and Gastroenterology 1, 127–132.Google Scholar
Gnoth, MJ, Kunz, C, Kinne-Saffran, E & Rudloff, S (2000) Human milk oligosaccharides are minimally digested in vitro. Journal of Nutrition 130, 3014–3020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffiths, EA, Duffy, LC, Schanbacher, FL, Dryja, D, Leavens, A, Neiswander, RL, Qiao, H, DiRienzo, D & Ogra, P (2003) In vitro growth responses of bifidobacteria and enteropathogens to bovine and human lactoferrin. Digestive Diseases and Sciences 48, 1324–1332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grizard, D & Barthomeuf, C (1999) Non-digestible oligosaccharides used as prebiotic agents: mode of production and beneficial effects on animal and human health. Reproduction Nutrition Development 39, 563–588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunn, JS (2000) Mechanisms of bacterial resistance and response to bile. Microbes and Infection 2, 907–913.Google Scholar
Guo, FC (2003) Mushroom and herb polysaccharides as alternative for antimicrobial growth promoters in poultry. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Guo, FC, Williams, BA, Kwakkel, RP, Li, HS, Li, XP, Luo, JY, Li, WK & Verstegen, MWA (2004) Effects of mushroom and herb polysaccharides, as alternatives for an antibiotic, on the cecal microbial ecosystem in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 83, 175–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
György, P, Jeanloz, RW, von Nicolai, H & Zilliken, F (1974) Undialyzable growth factors for Lactobacillus bifidus var. pennsylvanicus. Protective effect of sialic acid bound to glycoproteins and oligosaccharides against bacterial degradation. European Journal of Biochemistry 43, 29–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
György, P, Kuhn, R, Rose, CS & Zilliken, F (1954) Bifidus factor. II. Its occurrence in milk from different species and in other natural products. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 48, 202–208.Google Scholar
Hamosh, M (1998) Protective function of proteins and lipids in human milk. Biology of the Neonate 74, 163–176.Google Scholar
Harmsen, HJ, Wildeboer-Veloo, AC, Raangs, GC, Wagendorp, AA, Klijn, N, Bindels, JG & Welling, GW (2000) Analysis of intestinal flora development in breast-fed and formula-fed infants by using molecular identification and detection methods. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 30, 61–67.Google Scholar
Heikkilä, MP & Saris, PE (2003) Inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus by the commensal bacteria of human milk. Journal of Applied Microbiology 95, 471–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hentges, DJ, Marsh, WW, Petschow, BW, Thal, WR & Carter, MK (1992) Influence of infant diets on the ecology of the intestinal tract of human flora-associated mice. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 14, 146–152.Google Scholar
Hidaka, H, Eida, T, Takizawa, T, Tokunaga, T & Tashiro, Y (1986) Effects of fructo-oligosaccharides on intestinal flora and human health. Bifidobacteria Microflora 5, 37–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, IR & Porter, P (1974) Studies of bactericidal activity to Escherichia coli of porcine serum and colostral immunoglobulins and the role of lysozyme with secretory IgA. Immunology 26, 1239–1250.Google Scholar
Hillman, K (2001) Bacteriological aspects of the use of antibiotics and their alternatives in the feed of non-ruminant animals. In Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition, pp. 107–134 [Garnsworthy, pc and Wiseman, J, editors]. Nottingham: Nottingham University Press.Google Scholar
Hoey, L, Rowland, IR, Lloyd, AS, Clarke, DB & Wiseman, H (2004) Influence of soya-based infant formula consumption on isoflavone and gut microflora metabolite concentrations in urine and on faecal microflora composition and metabolic activity in infants and children. British Journal of Nutrition 91, 607–616.Google Scholar
Holt, C & Jenness, R (1984) Interrelationships of constituents and partition of salts in milk samples from eight species. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 77A, 275–282.Google Scholar
Hopkins, MJ, Englyst, HN, Macfarlane, S, Furrie, E, Macfarlane, GT & McBain, AJ (2003) Degradation of cross-linked and non-cross-linked arabinoxylans by the intestinal microbiota in children. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69, 6354–6360.Google Scholar
Hopkins, MJ & Macfarlane, GT (2003) Nondigestible oligosaccharides enhance bacterial colonization resistance against Clostridium difficile in vitro. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69, 1920–1927.Google Scholar
Houdijk, J (1998) Effects of non-digestible oligosaccharides in young pig diets. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Isaacs, CE (2001) The antimicrobial function of milk lipids. Advances in Nutritional Research 10, 271–285.Google ScholarPubMed
Isaacs, CE, Litov, RE & Thormar, H (1995) Antimicrobial activity of lipids added to human milk, infant formula, and bovine milk. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 6, 362–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isaacs, CE & Thormar, H (1991) The role of milk-derived antimicrobial lipids as antiviral and antibacterial agents. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 310, 159–165.Google Scholar
Jonsson, E & Hemmingsson, S (1991) Establishment in the piglet gut of lactobacilli capable of degrading mixed-linked beta-glucans. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 70, 512–516.Google Scholar
Jouany, JP (1994) Manipulation of microbial activity in the rumen. Archiv für Tierernährung 46, 133–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kabara, JJ, Swieczkowski, DM, Conley, AJ & Truant, JP (1972) Fatty acids and derivatives as antimicrobial agents. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 2, 23–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karlsson, K-A, Ångström, J, Bergström, J & Lanne, B (1992) Microbial interaction with animal cell surface carbohydrates. APMIS: Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica, et Immunologica Scandinavica 100, Suppl. 27, 71–83.Google Scholar
Kauf, AC & Kensinger, RS (2002) Purification of porcine beta-casein, N-terminal sequence, quantification in mastitic milk. Journal of Animal Science 80, 1863–1870.Google Scholar
King, RH & Pluske, JR (2003) Nutritional management of the pig in preparation for weaning. In Weaning the Pig, pp. 37–48 [Pluske, JR, Le Dividich, J and Verstegen, MWA, editors]. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Kirjavainen, PV, Apostolou, E, Arvola, T, Salminen, SJ, Gibson, GR & Isolauri, E (2001) Characterizing the composition of intestinal microflora as a prospective treatment target in infant allergic disease. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology 32, 1–7.Google Scholar
Kleessen, B, Bunke, H, Tovar, K, Noack, J & Sawatzki, G (1995) Influence of two infant formulas and human milk on the development of the faecal flora in newborn infants. Acta Paediatrica 84, 1347–1356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleessen, B, Elsayed, NA, Loehren, U, Schroedl, W & Krueger, M (2003) Jerusalem artichoke stimulate growth of broiler chickens and protect them against endotoxins and potential cecal pathogens. Journal of Food Protection 66, 2171–2175.Google Scholar
Kleessen, B, Stoof, G, Proll, J, Schmiedl, D, Noack, J & Blaut, M (1997) Feeding resistant starch affects fecal and cecal microflora and short-chain fatty acids in rats. Journal of Animal Science 75, 2453–2462.Google Scholar
Konstantinov, SR, Awati, A, Smidt, H, Williams, BA, Akkermans, ADL, De Vos, WM (2004 a) Specific response of a novel and abundant Lactobacillus amylovorus – like phylotype to dietary prebiotics in the guts of weaning piglets. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70, 3821–3830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Konstantinov, SR, Favier, CF, Zhu, WY, Williams, BA, Klüss, J, Souffrant, WB, De Vos, WM, Akkermans, ADL & Smidt, H (2004 b) Microbial diversity studies of the porcine gastrointestinal ecosystem during weaning transition. Animal Research 53, 317–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Konstantinov, SR, Zhu, WY, Williams, BA, Tamminga, S, De Vos, WM & Akkermans, ADL (2003) Effect of fermentable carbohydrates on piglet faecal bacterial communities as revealed by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of 16S ribosomal DNA. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 43, 225–235.Google Scholar
Kuda, T, Enomoto, T, Yano, T & Fujii, T (2000) Cecal environment and TBARS level in mice fed corn oil, beef tallow and menhaden fish oil. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 46, 65–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kunz, C (1998) Complex oligosaccharides in infant nutrition. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkunde 146, S49–S56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kunz, C & Rudloff, S (1993) Biological functions of oligosaccharides in human milk. Acta Paediatrica 82, 903–912.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kunz, C, Rudloff, S, Baier, W, Klein, N & Strobel, S (2000) Oligosaccharides in human milk: structural, functional, and metabolic aspects. Annual Review of Nutrition 20, 699–722.Google Scholar
Labbok, MH, Clark, D & Goldman, AS (2004) Breastfeeding: maintaining an irreplaceable immunological resource. Nature Reviews Immunology 4, 565–572.Google Scholar
Leser, TD, Amenuvor, JZ, Jense, TK, Lindecrona, RH, Boye, M & Møller, K (2002) Culture-independent analysis of gut bacteria: the pig gastrointestinal tract microbiota revisited. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68, 673–690.Google Scholar
Liepke, C, Adermann, K, Raida, M, Magert, HJ, Forssmann, WG & Zucht, HD (2002) Human milk provides peptides highly stimulating the growth of bifidobacteria. European Journal of Biochemistry 269, 712–718.Google Scholar
Lönnerdal, B & Iyer, S (1995) Lactoferrin: molecular structure and biological function. Annual Review of Nutrition 15, 93–110.Google Scholar
Lundequist, B, Nord, CE & Winberg, J (1985) The composition of the faecal microflora in breastfed and bottle fed infants from birth to eight weeks. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 74, 45–51.Google Scholar
McBurney, MI, Thompson, LU, Cuff, DJ & Jenkins, DJA (1988) Comparison of ileal effluents, dietary fibres, and whole foods in predicting the physiological importance of colonic fermentation. American Journal of Gastroenterology 83, 536–540.Google Scholar
McDonald, DE (2001) Dietary fibre for the newly weaned pig: influences on pig performance, intestinal development and expression of experimental postweaning colibacillosis and intestinal spirochaetosis. PhD Thesis, Murdoch University, Perth.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, GT, Cummings, JH & Allison, C (1986) Protein degradation by human intestinal bacteria. Journal of General Microbiology 132, 1647–1656.Google ScholarPubMed
Macfarlane, GT, Gibson, GR & Cummings, JH (1992) Comparison of fermentation reactions in different regions of the human colon. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 72, 57–64.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, S & Macfarlane, GT (1995) Proteolysis and amino acid fermentation. In Human Colonic Bacteria: Role in Nutrition, Physiology and Pathology, pp. 75–100 [Gibson, GR and Macfarlane, GT, editors]. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Mackie, Ri & White, BA (1997) Gastrointestinal Microbiology. New York: Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Mackie, RI, Sghir, A & Gaskins, HR (1999) Developmental microbial ecology of the neonatal gastrointestinal tract. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69, 1035–1045.Google Scholar
McVeagh, P & Miller, JB (1997) Human milk oligosaccharides: only the breast. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 33, 281–286.Google Scholar
Marteau, P, Pochart, P, Doré, J, Béra-Maillet, C, Bernallier, A & Corthier, G (2001) Comparative study of bacterial groups within the human cecal and fecal microbiota. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67, 4939–4942.Google Scholar
Martín, R, Langa, S, Reviriego, C, Jiminez, E, Marin, ML, Olivares, M, Boza, J, Jiminez, J, Fernandez, L, Xaus, J & Rodriguez, JM (2004) The commensal microflora of human milk: new perspectives for food bacteriotherapy and probiotics. Trends in Food Science and Technology 15, 121–127.Google Scholar
Martín, R, Langa, S, Reviriego, C, Jiminez, E, Marin, ML, Xaus, J, Fernandez, L & Rodriguez, JM (2003) Human milk is a source of lactic acid bacteria for the infant gut. Journal of Pediatrics 143, 754–758.Google Scholar
Masson, PL & Heremans, JF (1971) Lactoferrin in milk from different species. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 39B, 119–129.Google Scholar
Meisel, H (1986) Chemical characterization and opioid activity of an exorphin isolated from in vivo digests of casein. FEBS Letters 196, 223–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meisel, H & Frister, H (1989) Chemical characterization of bioactive peptides from in vivo digests of casein. Journal of Dairy Research 56, 343–349.Google Scholar
Mikkelsen, LL, Bendixen, C, Jacobsen, M & Jensen, BB (2003) Enumeration of bifidobacteria in gastrointestinal samples from piglets. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69, 654–658.Google Scholar
Moro, G, Minoli, I, Mosca, M, Fanaro, S, Jelinek, J, Stahl, B & Boehm, G (2002) Dosage-related bifidogenic effects of galacto- and fructooligosaccharides in formula-fed term infants. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 34, 291–295.Google Scholar
Mosenthin, R, Sauer, WC & Ahrens, F (1994) Dietary pectin's effect on ileal and fecal amino acid digestibility and exocrine pancreatic secretions in growing pigs. Journal of Nutrition 124, 1222–1229.Google Scholar
Mosenthin, R, Sauer, WC, Henkel, H, Ahrens, F & De Lange, CFM (1992) Tracer studies of urea kinetics in growing pigs: II. The effect of starch infusion at the distal ileum on urea recycling and bacterial nitrogen excretion. Journal of Animal Science 70, 3467–3472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moughan, PJ, Birtles, MJ, Cranwell, PJ, Smith, WC & Pedraza, M (1992) The piglet as a model animal for studying aspects of digestion and absorption in milk-fed human infants. In Nutritional Triggers for Health and in Disease, pp. 40–113 [Simopoulos, AP, editor]. Basel: Karger.Google Scholar
Nagy, LK, Mackenzie, T & Bharucha, Z (1976) In vitro studies on the antimicrobial effects of colostrum and milk from vaccinated and unvaccinated pigs on Escherichia coli. Research in Veterinary Science 21, 132–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naito, S, Hayashidani, H, Kaneko, K, Ogawa, M & Benno, Y (1995) Development of intestinal lactobacilli in normal piglets. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 79, 230–236.Google Scholar
Netherwood, T, Gilbert, HJ, Parker, DS & O'Donnell, AG (1999) Probiotics shown to change bacterial community structure in the avian gastrointestinal tract. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65, 5134–5138.Google Scholar
Newburg, DS (1999) Human milk glycoconjugates that inhibit pathogens. Current Medicinal Chemistry 6, 117–127.Google Scholar
Nuijens, JH, Van Berkel, PH & Schanbacher, FL (1996) Structure and biological actions of lactoferrin. Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia 1, 285–295.Google Scholar
Okubo, T, Ishihara, N, Takahash, H, Fujisawa, T, Kim, M, Yamamoto, T & Misuoka, T (1994) Effects of partially hydrolysed guar gum intake in human intestinal microflora and its metabolism. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry 58, 1364–1369.Google Scholar
O'Sullivan, D (1999) Methods for analysis of the intestinal microflora. In Probiotics: a Critical Review, pp. 23–44 [Tannock, GW, editor]. Wymondham, UK: Horizon Scientific Press.Google Scholar
Ouwehand, AC, Salminen, SJ, Skurnik, M & Conway, P. (1997) Inhibition of pathogen adhesion by β-lactoglobulin. International Dairy Journal 7, 685–692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parrett, AM & Edwards, CA (1997) In vitro fermentation of carbohydrate by breast fed and formula fed infants. Archives of Disease in Childhood 76, 249–253.Google Scholar
Parrett, AM, Edwards, CA & Lokerse, E (1997) Colonic fermentation capacity in vitro : development during weaning in breast-fed infants is slower for complex carbohydrates than for sugars. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65, 927–933.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pellegrini, A, Thomas, U, Bramaz, N, Hunziker, P & von Fellenberg, R (1999) Isolation and identification of three bactericidal domains in the bovine alpha-lactalbumin molecule. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1426, 439–448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, JA, Patton, S & Hamosh, M (1998) Glycoproteins of the human milk fat globule in the protection of the breast-fed infant against infections. Biology of the Neonate 74, 143–162.Google Scholar
Petschow, BW, Batema, RP, Talbott, RD & Ford, LL (1998) Impact of medium-chain monoglycerides on intestinal colonisation by Vibrio cholerae or enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Journal of Medical Microbiology 47, 383–389.Google Scholar
Petschow, BW & Talbott, RD (1990) Growth promotion of Bifidobacterium species by whey and casein fractions from human and bovine milk. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 28, 287–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petschow, BW & Talbott, RD (1991) Response of bifidobacterium species to growth promoters in human and cow milk. Pediatric Research 29, 208–213.Google Scholar
Pittard, WB III, Geddes, KM, Brown, S, Mintz, S & Hulsey, TC (1991) Bacterial contamination of human milk: container type and method of expression. American Journal of Perinatology 8, 25–27.Google Scholar
Poch, M & Bezkorovainy, A (1991) Bovine milk κ-casein trypsin digest is a growth enhancer for the genus Bifidobacterium. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 39, 73–77.Google Scholar
Rathbone, EB (1980) Raffinose and melezitose. In Developments in Food Carbohydrate, pp. 146–149 [Lee, CK, editor]. London: Applied Science Publisher Ltd.Google Scholar
Ross, AH, Eastwood, MA, Brydon, WG, Anderson, JR & Anderson, DM (1983) A study of the effects of dietary gum arabic in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 37, 368–375.Google Scholar
Rudloff, S & Kunz, C (1997) Protein and nonprotein nitrogen components in human milk, bovine milk, and infant formula: quantitative and qualitative aspects in infant nutrition. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 24, 328–344.Google ScholarPubMed
Rueda, R, Sabatel, JL, Maldonado, J, Molina-Font, JA & Gil, A (1998) Addition of gangliosides to an adapted milk formula modifies levels of fecal Escherichia coli in preterm newborn infants. Journal of Pediatrics 133, 90–94.Google Scholar
Salmon, H (1999) The mammary gland and neonate mucosal immunity. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 72, 143–155.Google Scholar
Salyers, AA, West, SEH, Vercelotti, JR & Wilkins, TD (1977) Fermentation of mucins and plant polysaccharides by anaerobic bacteria from the human colon. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 34, 529–533.Google Scholar
Sanchez, L, Calvo, M & Brock, JH (1992) Biological role of lactoferrin. Archives of Disease in Childhood 67, 657–661.Google Scholar
Satokari, RM, Vaughan, EE, Akkermans, ADL, Saarela, M & De Vos, WM (2001) Polymerase chain reaction and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis monitoring of fecal Bifidobacterium populations in a prebiotic and probiotic feeding trial. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 24, 227–231.Google Scholar
Savage, DC (1977) Microbial ecology of the gastrointestinal tract. Annual Review of Microbiology 31, 107–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmelz, EM, Crall, KJ, Larocque, R, Dillehay, DL & Merrill, AH Jr (1994) Uptake and metabolism of sphingolipids in isolated intestinal loops of mice. Journal of Nutrition 124, 702–712.Google Scholar
Schroten, H (2001) Chemistry of milk mucins and their antimicrobial action. In Advances in Nutritional Research, vol.10, pp. 231–245 [Woodward, B and Draper, HH, editors]. New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Schulze, F & Muller, G (1980) Lysozyme in sow's milk and its importance to bacterial population of the gastrointestinal tract in suckling piglets. Archiv für Experimentelle Veterinärmedizin 34, 317–324.Google Scholar
Silvi, S, Rumney, CJ, Cresci, A & Rowland, IR (1999) Resistant starch modifies gut microflora and microbial metabolism in human flora-associated rats inoculated with faeces from Italian and UK donors. Journal of Applied Microbiology 86, 521–530.Google Scholar
Simpson, JM, McCracken, VJ, Gaskins, HR & Mackie, RI (2000) Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of 16S ribosomal DNA amplicons to monitor changes in fecal bacterial populations of weaning pigs after introduction of Lactobacillus reuteri strain MM53. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, 4705–4714.Google Scholar
Smiricky-Tjardes, MR, Grieshop, CM, Flickinger, EA, Bauer, LL & Fahey, GC Jr (2003) Dietary galactooligosaccharides affect ileal and total-tract nutrient digestibility, ileal and fecal bacterial concentrations, and ileal fermentative characteristics of growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 81, 2535–2545.Google Scholar
Smith, HW (1965) Development of the flora of the alimentary tract in young animals. Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology 90, 495–513.Google Scholar
Sprong, RC, Hulstein, MF & Van der Meer, R (2001) Bactericidal activities of milk lipids. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 45, 1298–1301.Google Scholar
Staples, A, Wang, B & Brand-Miller, J (2002) Comparison of sialic acid content in sow's milk and pig milk replacers. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia 62, S237 Abstr.Google Scholar
Stark, PL & Lee, A (1982) The microbial ecology of the large bowel of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during the first year of life. Journal of Medical Microbiology 15, 189–203.Google Scholar
Steer, T, Carpenter, H, Tuohy, K & Gibson, GR (2000) Perspectives on the role of the human gut microbiota and its modulation by pro- and prebiotics. Nutrition Research Reviews 13, 229–254.Google Scholar
Stephen, AM & Cummings, JH (1979) Water holding by dietary fibre in vitro and its relationship to faecal output in man. Gut 20, 722–729.Google Scholar
Stewart, CS (1997) Microorganisms in hindgut fermentors. In Gastrointestinal microbiology, pp. 142–186 [Mackie, RI, White, BA and Isaacson, RE editors]. New York: Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Strompfová, V, Lauková, A & Ouwehand, AC. (2004) Selection of enterococci for potential canine probiotic additives. Veterinary Microbiology 100, 107–114.Google Scholar
Sutton, AL & Patterson, JA (1996) Effects of dietary carbohydrates and organic acid additions on pathogenic E. coli and other microorganisms in the weanling pig. In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Animal Nutrition, pp. 31–61 [Babinszky, L, editor]. Kapsov´r, Hungary: PANNON Agricultural University, Faculty of Animal Science.Google Scholar
Tanaka, R, Takayama, H, Morotomi, M, Kuroshima, T, Ueyama, S & Matsumoto, K (1983) Effects of administration of TOS and Bifidobacterium breve 4006 on the human fecal flora. Bifidobacteria Microflora 2, 17–24.Google Scholar
Tannock, GW (2001) Molecular assessment of intestinal microflora. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 73, 410S–414S.Google Scholar
Tannock, GW, Fuller, R & Pedersen, K (1990) Lactobacillus succession in the piglet digestive tract demonstrated by plasmid profiling. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 56, 1310–1316.Google Scholar
Tannock, GW, Munro, K, Harmsen, HJ, Welling, GW, Smart, J & Gopal, PK (2000) Analysis of the fecal microflora of human subjects consuming a probiotic product containing Lactobacillus rhamnosus DR20. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, 2578–2588.Google Scholar
Tannock, GW, Tangerman, A, Van Schaik, A & McConnell, MA (1994) Deconjugation of bile acids by lactobacilli in the mouse small bowel. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 60, 3419–3420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teitelbaum, JE & Walker, WA (2002) Nutritional impact of pre- and probiotics as protective gastrointestinal organisms. Annual Review of Nutrition 22, 107–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thoren-Tolling, K & Martinsson, K (1974) On the transferrin concentration in serum of sows and growing pigs and in sow colostrum. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 15, 120–134.Google Scholar
Thormar, H, Isaacs, CE, Brown, HR, Barshatzky, MR & Pessolano, T (1987) Inactivation of enveloped viruses and killing of cells by fatty acids and monoglycerides. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 31, 27–31.Google Scholar
Tomita, M, Bellamy, W, Takase, M, Yamauchi, K, Wakabayashi, H & Kawase, K (1991) Potent antibacterial peptides generated by pepsin digestion of bovine lactoferrin. Journal of Dairy Science 74, 4137–4142.Google Scholar
Tsuchido, T, Hiraoka, T, Takano, M & Shibasaki, I (1985) Involvement of autolysin in cellular lysis of Bacillus subtilis induced by short- and medium-chain fatty acids. Journal of Bacteriology 162, 42–46.Google Scholar
Tzortzis, G, Goulas, AK, Baillon, M-LA, Gibson, GR & Rastall, RA (2004) In vitro evaluation of the fermentation properties of galactooligosaccharides synthesised by α-galactosidase from Lactobacillus reuteri. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 64, 106–111.Google Scholar
Van der Steen, I, Rohde, J, Zentek, J & Amtsberg, G (1997) Fütterungseinflüsse auf das Vorkommen und die Enterotoxinbildung von Clostridium perfringens im Darmkanal des Hundes (Dietary effects on the occurrence of Clostridium perfringers and its enterotoxin in the intestine of dogs). Kleintierpraxis 42, 871–886.Google Scholar
Van der Waaij, D, Berghuis De Vries, JM & Lekkerkerk Van der Wees, JEC (1971) Colonization resistance of the digestive tract in conventional and antibiotic-treated mice. Journal of Hygiene 69, 405–411.Google Scholar
Van Loo, J, Coussement, P, De Leenherr, L, Hoebregs, H & Smits, G (1995) On the presence of inulin and oligofructose as natural ingredients in the western diet. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 35, 525–552.Google Scholar
Van Nuenen, MHMC, Meyer, PD & Venema, K (2003) The effect of various inulins and Clostridium difficile on the metabolic activity of the human colonic microbiota in vitro. Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease 15, 137–144.Google Scholar
Varel, VH, Pond, WG & Yen, JT (1984) Influence of dietary fiber on the performance and cellulase activity of growing-finishing swine. Journal of Animal Science 59, 388–393.Google Scholar
Varel, VH & Yen, JT (1997) Microbial perspective on fiber utilization by swine. Journal of Animal Science 75, 2715–2722.Google Scholar
Vaughan, EE, Schut, F, Heilig, HG, Zoetendal, EG, De Vos, WM & Akkermans, AD (2000) A molecular view of the intestinal ecosystem. Current Issues in Intestinal Microbiology 1, 1–12.Google Scholar
Wagstrom, EA, Yoon, KJ & Zimmerman, JJ (2000) Immune components in porcine mammary secretions. Viral Immunology 13, 383–397.Google Scholar
Walker, RI & Owen, RL (1990) Intestinal barriers to bacteria and their toxins. Annual Review of Medicine 41, 393–400.Google Scholar
Walter, J, Tannock, GW, Tilsala-Timisjarvi, A, Rodtong, S, Loach, DM, Munro, K & Alatossava, T (2000) Detection and identification of gastrointestinal Lactobacillus species by using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and species-specific PCR primers. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, 297–303.Google Scholar
Wang, JF, Zhu, YH, Li, DF, Wang, Z & Jensen, BB (2004) In vitro fermentation of various fiber and starch sources by pig fecal inocula. Journal of Animal Science 82, 2615–2622.Google Scholar
Wang, LL & Johnson, EA (1992) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by fatty acids and monoglycerides. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 58, 624–629.Google Scholar
Wang, X, Brown, IL, Khaled, D, Mahoney, MC, Evans, AJ & Conway, PL (2002) Manipulation of colonic bacteria and volatile fatty acid production by dietary high amylose maize (amylomaize) starch granules. Journal of Applied Microbiology 93, 390–397.Google Scholar
Wang, X & Gibson, GR (1993) Effects of the in vitro fermentation of oligofructose and inulin by bacteria growing in the human large intestine. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 75, 373–380.Google Scholar
West, PA, Hewitt, JH & Murphy, OM (1979) Influence of methods of collection and storage on the bacteriology of human milk. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 46, 269–277.Google Scholar
Williams, BA, Bosch, MW, Boer, H, Verstegen, MWA & Tamminga, S (2005) An in vitro batch culture method to assess potential fermentability of ingredients for monogastric diets. Animal Feed Science and Technology 123–124, 445–462.Google Scholar
Williams, BA, Verstegen, MWA & Tamminga, S (2001) Fermentation in the monogastric large intestine: its relation to animal health. Nutrition Research Reviews 14, 207–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu, ZR, Zou, XT, Hu, CH, Xia, MS, Zhan, XA & Wang, MQ (2002) Effects of dietary fructooligosaccharides on digestive enzyme activities, intestinal microflora and morphology of growing pigs. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 15, 1784–1789.Google Scholar
Yamauchi, K, Tomita, M, Giehl, TJ & Ellison, RT III (1993) Antibacterial activity of lactoferrin and a pepsin-derived lactoferrin peptide fragment. Infection and Immunity 61, 719–728.Google Scholar
Younes, H, Garleb, K, Behr, S, Rémésy, C & Demigné, C (1995) Fermentable fibres or oligosaccharides reduce urinary nitrogen excretion by increasing urea disposal in the rat cecum. Journal of Nutrition 125, 1010–1016.Google Scholar
Zentek, J (1995 a) Influence of diet composition on the microbial activity in the gastro-intestinal tract of dogs. I. Effects of varying protein intake on the composition of the ileum chyme and the faeces. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 74, 43–52.Google Scholar
Zentek, J (1995 b) Influence of diet composition on the microbial activity in the gastro-intestinal tract of dogs. II. Effects on the microflora in the ileum chyme. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 74, 53–61.Google Scholar
Zhou, J (2003) Microarrays for bacterial detection and microbial community analysis. Current Opinion in Microbiology 6, 288–294.Google Scholar
Zoetendal, EG, Collier, CT, Koike, S, Mackie, RI & Gaskins, HR (2004) Molecular ecological analysis of the gastrointestinal microbiota: a review. Journal of Nutrition 134, 465–472.Google Scholar
Zoetendal, EG, Von Wright, A, Vilpponen-Salmela, T, Ben-Amor, K, Akkermans, ADL & De Vos, WM (2002) Mucosa-associated bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract are uniformly distributed along the colon and differ from the community recovered from feces. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68, 3401–3407.Google Scholar
Zucht, HD, Raida, M, Adermann, K, Magert, HJ & Forssmann, WG (1995) Casocidin-I: a casein-alpha s2 derived peptide exhibits antibacterial activity. FEBS Letters 372, 185–188.Google Scholar