Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T05:33:55.486Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Dietary α-linolenic acid and health-related outcomes: a metabolic perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

Graham C Burdge  and
Philip C Calder
Graham C Burdge
Affiliation:
Institute of Human Nutrition, Developmental Origins of Health and Disease Division, University of Southampton, Bassett Crescent East, Southampton SO16 7PX, UK
Philip C Calder*
Affiliation:
Institute of Human Nutrition, Developmental Origins of Health and Disease Division, University of Southampton, Bassett Crescent East, Southampton SO16 7PX, UK
*
*Corresponding author: Dr Philip C. Calder, fax +44 2380 594379, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

α-Linolenic acid (αLNA; 18: 3n-3) is essential in the human diet, probably because it is the substrate for the synthesis of longer-chain, more unsaturated n-3 fatty acids, principally EPA (20: 5n-3) and DHA (22: 6n-3), which confer important biophysical properties on cell membranes and so are required for tissue function. The extent to which this molecular transformation occurs in man is controversial. The present paper reviews the recent literature on the metabolism of αLNA in man, including the use of dietary αLNA in β-oxidation, recycling of carbon by fatty acid synthesis de novo and conversion to longer-chain PUFA. Sex differences in αLNA metabolism and the possible biological consequences are discussed. Increased consumption of EPA and DHA in fish oil has a number of well-characterised beneficial effects on health. The present paper also reviews the efficacy of increased αLNA consumption in increasing the concentrations of EPA and DHA in blood and cell lipid pools, and the extent to which such dietary interventions might be protective against CVD and inflammation. Although the effects on CVD risk factors and inflammatory markers are variable, where beneficial effects have been reported these are weaker than have been achieved from increasing consumption of EPA+DHA or linoleic acid. Overall, the limited capacity for conversion to longer-chain n-3 fatty acids, and the lack of efficacy in ameliorating CVD risk factors and inflammatory markers in man suggests that increased consumption of αLNA may be of little benefit in altering EPA+DHA status or in improving health outcomes compared with other dietary interventions.

Keywords

α-Linolenic acidHuman metabolismCardiovascular diseaseInflammation
Type
Research Article
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 19 , Issue 1 , June 2006 , pp. 26 - 52
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2006

References

Adolph, EF & Heggeness, FW (1971) Age changes in body water and fat in fetal and infant mammals. Growth 35, 55–63.Google ScholarPubMed
Allman, MA, Pena, MM & Pang, D (1995) Supplementation with flaxseed oil versus sunflowerseed oil in healthy young men consuming a low fat diet: effects on platelet composition and function. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49, 169–178.Google ScholarPubMed
Allman-Farinelli, MA, Hall, D, Kingham, K, Pang, D, Petocz, P & Favaloro, EJ (1999) Comparison of the effects of two low fat diets with different alpha-linolenic:linoleic acid ratios on coagulation and fibrinolysis. Atherosclerosis 142, 159–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, RE (1970) Lipids of ocular tissues. IV. A comparison of the phospholipids from the retina of six mammalian species. Experimental Eye Research 10, 339–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arjmandi, BH, Khan, DA, Juma, S, Drum, ML, Venkatesh, S, Sohn, E, Wei, L & Derman, R (1998) Whole flaxseed consumption lowers serum LDL-cholesterol and lipoprotein(a) concentrations in postmenopausal women. Nutrition Research 18, 1203–1214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ascherio, A, Rimm, EB, Giovannucci, EL, Spiegelman, D, Stampfer, M & Willett, WC (1996) Dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease in men: cohort follow up study in the United States. BMJ 313, 84–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Astorg, P, Arnault, N, Czernichow, S, Noisette, N, Galan, P & Hercberg, S (2004) Dietary intakes and food sources of n-6 and n-3 PUFA in French adult men and women. Lipids 39, 527–535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bang, HO, Dyerberg, J & Hjoorne, N (1976) The composition of food consumed by Greenland Eskimos. Acta Medica Scandinavia 200, 69–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baylin, A, Kabagambe, EK, Ascherio, A, Spiegelman, D & Campos, H (2003) Adipose tissue alpha-linolenic acid and nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Costa Rica. Circulation 107, 1586–1591.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bemelmans, WJ, Broer, J, Feskens, EJ, Smit, AJ, Muskiet, FA, Lefrandt, JD, Bom, VJ, May, JF & Meyboom-de Jong, B (2002) Effect of an increased intake of alpha-linolenic acid and group nutritional education on cardiovascular risk factors: the Mediterranean Alpha-linolenic Enriched Groningen Dietary Intervention (MARGARIN) study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 75, 221–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bemelmans, WJ, Lefrandt, JD, Feskens, EJ, van Haelst, PL, Broer, J, Meyboom-de Jong, B, May, JF, Tervaert, JW & Smit, AJ (2004) Increased alpha-linolenic acid intake lowers C-reactive protein, but has no effect on markers of atherosclerosis. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58, 1083–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berry, EM & Hirsch, J (1986) Does dietary linolenic acid influence blood pressure? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 44, 336–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bieri, JG & Prival, EL (1965) Lipid composition of testes from various species. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 15, 275–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjerregaard, P & Dyerberg, J (1988) Fish oil and ischaemic heart disease in Greenland. Lancet ii, 514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bretillon, L, Chardigny, JM, Sebedio, JL, Noel, JP, Scrimgeour, CM, Fernie, CE, Loreau, O, Gachon, P & Beaufrere, B (2001) Isomerization increases the postprandial oxidation of linoleic acid but not α-linolenic acid in men. Journal of Lipid Research 42, 995–997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
British Nutrition Foundation (1992) Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Nutritional and Physiological Significance. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Broadhurst, CL, Wang, Y, Crawford, MA, Cunnane, SC, Parkington, JE & Schmidt, WF (2002) Brain-specific lipids from marine, lacustrine, or terrestrial food resources: potential impact on early African Homo sapiens. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 131B, 653–673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brouwer, IA, Katan, MB & Zock, PL (2004) Dietary alpha-linolenic acid is associated with reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease, but increased prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Journal of Nutrition 134, 919–922.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bucher, HC, Hengstler, P, Schindler, C & Meier, G (2002) n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids in coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Medicine 112, 298–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burdge, GC, Derrick, PR, Russell, JJ, Tricon, S, Kew, S, Banerjee, T, Grimble, RF, Williams, CM, Yaqoob, P & Calder, PC (2005) Incorporation of cis-9, trans-11 or trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid into human erythrocytes in vivo. Nutrition Research 25, 13–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burdge, GC, Finnegan, YE, Minihane, AM, Williams, CM & Wootton, SA (2003) Effect of altered dietary n-3 fatty aid intake upon plasma lipid fatty acid composition, conversion of [ 13C]α-linolenic acid to longer-chain fatty acids and partitioning towards β-oxidation in older men. British Journal of Nutrition 90, 311–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burdge, GC, Hunt, AN & Postle, AD (1994) Mechanisms of hepatic phosphatidylcholine synthesis in adult rat: effects of pregnancy. Biochemical Journal 303, 941–947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burdge, GC, Jones, AE & Wootton, SA (2002) Eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal products of α-linolenic acid metabolism in young men. British Journal of Nutrition 88, 355–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burdge, GC & Wootton, SA (2002) Conversion of α-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. British Journal of Nutrition 88, 411–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burdge, GC & Wootton, SA (2003) Conversion of α-linolenic acid to palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic and oleic acids in men and women. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 69, 283–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, PC (2001) Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity. Lipids 36, 1007–1024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, PC (2002) Dietary modification of inflammation with lipids. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 61, 345–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calder, PC (2003) n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation: from molecular biology to the clinic. Lipids 38, 342–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, PC (2004 a) n-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: evidence explained and mechanisms explored. Clinical Science 107, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, PC (2004 b) n-3 Fatty acids, inflammation and immunity – relevance to postsurgical and critically ill patients. Lipids 39, 1147–1161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, PC (2005) Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation. Biochemical Society Transactions 33, 423–427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, PC, Yaqoob, P, Thies, F, Wallace, FA & Miles, EA (2002) Fatty acids and lymphocyte functions. British Journal of Nutrition 87, S31–S48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carnielli, VP, Wattimena, DJ, Luijendijk, IH, Boerlage, A, Degenhart, HJ & Sauer, PJ (1996) The very-low-birth-weight premature infant is capable of synthesizing arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid from linolenic and linolenic acid. Pediatric Research 40, 169–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caughey, GE, Mantzioris, E, Gibson, RA, Cleland, LG & James, MJ (1996) The effect on human tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 beta production of diets enriched in n-3 fatty acids from vegetable oil or fish oil. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, 116–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chan, JK, Bruce, VM & McDonald, BE (1991) Dietary alpha-linolenic acid is as effective as oleic acid and linoleic acid in lowering blood cholesterol in normolipidemic men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, 1230–1234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chan, JK, McDonald, BE, Gerrard, JM, Bruce, VM, Weaver, BJ & Holub, BJ (1993) Effect of dietary alpha-linolenic acid and its ratio to linoleic acid on platelet and plasma fatty acids and thrombogenesis. Lipids 28, 811–817.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, MC, Bell, JM, Purdon, AD, Chikhale, EG & Grange, E (1999) Dynamics of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism in the central nervous system: lack of effect of chronic lithium treatment. Neurochemistry Research 24, 399–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapkin, RS, Ziboh, VA, Marcelo, CL & Voorhees, JJ (1986) Metabolism of essential fatty acids by human epidermal enzyme preparations: evidence of chain elongation. Journal of Lipid Research 27, 945–954.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chin, JPF, Gust, A, Nestel, PJ & Dart, AM (1993) Fish oils dose-dependently inhibit vasoconstriction of forearm resistance vessels in humans. Hypertension 21, 22–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cho, HP, Nakamura, M & Clarke, SD (1999) Cloning, expression, and fatty acid regulation of the human delta-5 desaturase. Journal of Biological Chemistry 274, 37335–37339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christensen, JH, Gustenhoff, P, Korup, E, Aaroe, J, Toft, E, Moller, J, Rasmussen, K, Dyerberg, J & Schmidt, EB (1996) Effect of fish oil on heart rate variability in survivors of myocardial infarction: a double blind randomised controlled trial. BMJ 312, 677–678.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christensen, JH, Skou, HA, Fog, L, Hansen, V, Vesterlund, T, Dyerberg, J, Toft, E & Schmidt, EB (2001) Marine n-3 fatty acids, wine intake, and heart rate variability in patients referred for coronary angiography. Circulation 103, 651–657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clandinin, MT, Chappell, JE, Heim, T, Swyer, PR & Chance, GW (1981) Fatty acid utilization in perinatal de novo synthesis of tissues. Early Human Development 5, 355–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clouet, P, Niot, I & Bezard, J (1989) Pathway of alpha-linolenic acid through the mitochondrial outer membrane in the rat liver and influence on the rate of oxidation. Comparison with linoleic and oleic acids. Biochemical Journal 263, 867–873.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connor, WE & Neuringer, M (1988) The effects of n-3 fatty acid deficiency and repletion upon the fatty acid composition and function of the brain and retina. Progress in Clinical and Biological Research 282, 275–294.Google ScholarPubMed
Correia, HR, Balseiro, SC, Correia, ER, Mota, PG & de Areia, ML (2004) Why are human newborns so fat? Relationship between fatness and brain size at birth. American Journal of Human Biology 16, 24–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, MA, Casperd, NM & Sinclair, AJ (1976) The long chain metabolites of linoleic and linolenic acids in liver and brain in herbivores and carnivores. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 54B, 395–401.Google Scholar
Cunnane, SC, Hamadeh, MJ, Liede, AC, Thompson, LU, Wolever, TM & Jenkins, DJ (1995) Nutritional attributes of traditional flaxseed in healthy young adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61, 62–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunnane, SC, Ryan, MA, Nadeau, CR, Bazinet, RP, Musa-Veloso, K & McCloy, U (2003) Why is carbon from some polyunsaturates extensively recycled in lipid synthesis? Lipids 38, 477–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunnane, SC, Williams, SC, Bell, JD, Brookes, S, Craig, K, Iles, RA & Crawford, MA (1994) Utilization of uniformly labeled 13C-polyunsaturated fatty acids in the synthesis of long-chain fatty acids and cholesterol accumulating in the neonatal rat brain. Journal of Neurochemistry 62, 2429–2436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D'andrea, S, Guillou, H, Jan, S, Catheline, D, Thibault, JN, Bouriel, M, Rioux, V & Legrand, P (2002) The same rat Δ6-desaturase not only acts on 18- but also on 24-carbon fatty acids in very-long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis. Biochemical Journal 364, 49–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Antueno, RJ, Knickle, LC, Smith, H, Elliot, ML, Allen, SJ, Nwaka, S & Winther, MD (2001) Activity of human Δ5 and Δ6 desaturases on multiple n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. FEBS Letters 509, 77–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Gomez Dumm, IN & Brenner, RR (1975) Oxidative desaturation of alpha-linoleic, linoleic, and stearic acids by human liver microsomes. Lipids 10, 315–317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Lorgeril, M, Renaud, S, Mamelle, N, Salen, P, Martin, JL, Monjaud, I, Guidollet, J, Touboul, P & Delaye, J (1994) Mediterranean alpha-linolenic acid-rich diet in secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. Lancet 343, 1454–1459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Prado, M, Villalpando, S, Elizondo, A, Rodriguez, M, Demmelmair, H & Koletzko, B (2001) Contribution of dietary and newly formed arachidonic acid to human milk lipids in women eating a low-fat diet. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 74, 242–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeLany, JP, Windhauser, MM, Champagne, CM & Bray, GA (2000) Differential oxidation of individual dietary fatty acids in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72, 905–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Djousse, L, Arnett, DK, Carr, JJ, Eckfeldt, JH, Hopkins, PN, Province, MA & Ellison, RC (2005) Investigators of the NHLBI FHS Dietary linolenic acid is inversely associated with calcified atherosclerotic plaque in the coronary arteries: the National Heart. Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study. Circulation 111, 2921–2926.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Djousse, L, Folsom, AR, Province, MA, Hunt, SC & Ellison, RC (2003) Dietary linolenic acid and carotid atherosclerosis: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 819–825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Djousse, L, Pankow, JS, Eckfeldt, JH, Folsom, AR, Hopkins, PN, Province, MA, Hong, Y & Ellison, RC (2001) Relation between dietary linolenic acid and coronary artery disease in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 74, 612–619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dolecek, TA (1992) Epidemiological evidence of relationships between dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the multiple risk factor intervention trial. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 200, 177–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dyerberg, J, Bang, HO, Stoffersen, E, Moncada, S & Vane, JR (1978) Eicosapentaenoic acid and prevention of thrombosis and atherosclerosis? Lancet ii, 117–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emken, EA (2001) Stable isotope approaches, applications and issues related to polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism studies. Lipids 36, 965–973.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emken, EA, Adlof, RO, Duval, SM & Nelson, GJ (1999) Effect of dietary docosahexaenoic acid on desaturation and uptake in vivo of isotope-labeled oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids by male subjects. Lipids 34, 785–798.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emken, EA, Adlof, RO & Gulley, RM (1994) Dietary linoleic acid influences desaturation and acylation of deuterium-labeled linoleic and linolenic acids in young adult males. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1213, 277–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, K, Burdge, GC, Wootton, SA, Clark, ML & Frayn, KN (2002) Regulation of dietary fatty acid entrapment in subcutaneous adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. Diabetes 51, 2684–2690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ezaki, O, Takahashi, M, Shigematsu, T, Shimamura, K, Kimura, J, Ezaki, H & Gotoh, T. (1999) Long-term effects of dietary alpha-linolenic acid from perilla oil on serum fatty acids composition and on the risk factors of coronary heart disease in Japanese elderly subjects. Journal of Nutrition Science Vitaminology (Tokyo) 45, 759–772.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernstrom, JD (1999) Effects of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids on neuronal function. Lipids 34, 161–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finnegan, YE, Howarth, D, Minihane, AM, Kew, S, Miller, GJ, Calder, PC & Williams, CM. (2003 a) Plant and marine derived (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids do not affect blood coagulation and fibrinolytic factors in moderately hyperlipidemic humans. Journal of Nutrition 133, 2210–2213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finnegan, YE, Minihane, AM, Leigh-Firbank, EC, Kew, S, Meijer, GW, Muggli, R, Calder, PC & Williams, CM (2003 b) Plant- and marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have differential effects on fasting and postprandial blood lipid concentrations and on the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 783–795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Francois, CA, Connor, SL, Bolewicz, LC & Connor, WE (2003) Supplementing lactating women with flaxseed oil does not increase docosahexaenoic acid in their milk. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 226–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freese, R & Mutanen, M (1997) Alpha-linolenic acid and marine long-chain n-3 fatty acids differ only slightly in their effects on hemostatic factors in healthy subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66, 591–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freese, R, Mutanen, M, Valsta, LM & Salminen, I (1994) Comparison of the effects of two diets rich in monounsaturated fatty acids differing in their linoleic/alpha-linolenic acid ratio on platelet aggregation. Thrombosis and Haemostasis 71, 73–77.Google Scholar
Ge, L, Gordon, JS, Hsuan, C, Stenn, K & Prouty, SM (2003) Identification of the delta-6 desaturase of human sebaceous glands: expression and enzyme activity. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 120, 707–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geleijnse, JM, Giltay, EJ, Grobbee, DE, Donders, AR & Kok, FJ (2002) Blood pressure response to fish oil supplementation: metaregression analysis of randomized trials. Journal of Hypertension 20, 1493–1499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbons, A (2002 a) American Association of Physical Anthropologists meeting. Humans' head start: new views of brain evolution. Science 296, 835–837.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibbons, A (2002 b) Becoming human. In search of the first hominids. Science 295, 1214–1219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giltay, EJ, Duschek, EJ, Katan, MB, Zock, PL, Neele, SJ & Netelenbos, JC (2004 a) Raloxifene and hormone replacement therapy increase arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid levels in postmenopausal women. Journal of Endocrinology 182, 399–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giltay, EJ, Gooren, LJ, Toorians, AW, Katan, MB & Zock, PL (2004 b) Docosahexaenoic acid concentrations are higher in women than in men because of estrogenic effects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80, 1167–1174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goode, GK, Garcia, S & Heagerty, AM (1997) Dietary supplementation with marine fish oil improves in vitro small artery endothelial function in hypercholesterolemic patients: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Circulation 96, 2802–2807.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodnight, SH, Harris, WS & Connor, WE (1981) The effects of dietary omega 3 fatty acids on platelet composition and function in man: a prospective, controlled study. Blood 58, 880–885.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goyens, PL, Spilker, ME, Zock, PL, Katan, MB & Mensink, RP (2005) Development of a compartmental model to quantify alpha-linolenic acid conversion after longer-term intake of multiple tracer boluses. Journal of Lipid Research 46, 1474–1483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregersen, MI & Rawson, RA (1959) Blood volume. Physiological Reviews 39, 307–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hacia, JG (2001) Genome of the apes. Trends in Genetics 17, 637–645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harmon, SD, Kaduce, TL, Manuel, TD & Spector, AA (2003) Effect of Δ6-desaturase inhibitor SC-26196 on PUFA metabolism in human cells. Lipids 38, 469–476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, WS (1996) n-3 Fatty acids and lipoproteins: comparison of results from human and animal studies. Lipids 31, 243–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
He, K, Rimm, EB, Merchant, A, Rosner, BA, Stampfer, MJ, Willett, WC & Ascherio, A (2004) Fish consumption and risk of stroke in men. JAMA 288, 3130–3136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Healy, DA, Wallace, FA, Miles, EA, Calder, PC & Newsholm, P (2000) Effect of low-to-moderate amounts of dietary fish oil on neutrophil lipid composition and function. Lipids 35, 763–768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heath, RB, Karpe, F, Milne, RW, Burdge, GC, Wootton, SA & Frayn, KN (2003) Selective partitioning of dietary fatty acids into the VLDL TG pool in the early postprandial period. Journal of Lipid Research 44, 2065–2072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, FB, Stampfer, MJ, Manson, JE, Rimm, EB, Wolk, A, Colditz, GA, Hennekens, CH & Willett, WC (1999) Dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid and risk of fatal ischemic heart disease among women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69, 890–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hulshof, KFAM, van Erp-Baart, MA, Anttolainen, M, Becker, W, Church, SM, Couet, C, Hermann-Kunz, E, Kesteloot, H, Leth, T, Martins, I, Moreiras, O, Moschandreas, J, et al. (1999) Intake of fatty acids in Western Europe with emphasis on trans fatty acids: the TRANSFAIR Study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, 143–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussein, N, Ah-Sing, E, Wilkinson, P, Leach, C, Griffin, BA & Millward, DJ (2005) Relative rates of long chain conversion of 13C linoleic and α-linolenic acid in response to marked changes in their dietary intake in male adults. Journal of Lipid Research 46, 269–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Infante, JP & Huszagh, VA. (1998) Analysis of the putative role of 24-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids in the biosynthesis of docosapentaenoic (22:5n-6) and docosahexaenoic (22:6n–3 1998) acids. FEBS Letters 43, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Innis, SM, Elias, SJ (2003) Intakes of essential n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among pregnant Canadian women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 473–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irving, CS, Wong, WW, Shulman, RJ, Smith, EO, Klein, PD (1983) [13C]Bicarbonate kinetics in humans: intra- vs interindividual variations. American Journal of Physiology 245, R190–R202.Google Scholar
James, MJ, Ursin, VM & Cleland, LG (2003) Metabolism of stearidonic acid in human subjects: comparison with the metabolism of other n-3 fatty acids. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 1140–1145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeffrey, BG, Weisinger, HS, Neuringer, M & Mitchell, DC (2001) The role of docosahexaenoic acid in retinal function. Lipids 36, 859–871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Junker, R, Kratz, M, Neufeld, M, Erren, M, Nofer, JR, Schulte, H, Nowak-Gottl, U, Assmann, G & Wahrburg, U (2001) Effects of diets containing olive oil, sunflower oil, or rapeseed oil on the hemostatic system. Thrombosis and Haemostasis 85, 280–286.Google ScholarPubMed
Kaminskas, A, Zieden, B, Elving, B, Kristenson, M, Abaravicius, A, Bergdahl, B, Olsson, AG & Kucinskiene, Z (1999) Adipose tissue fatty acids in men from two populations with different cardiovascular risk: the LiVicordia study. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical Laboratory Investigation 59, 227–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karvonen, HM, Aro, A, Tapola, NS, Salminen, I, Uusitupa, MIJ & Sarkkinen, ES (2002) Effect of alpha-linolenic acid-rich Camelina sativa oil on serum fatty acid composition and serum lipids in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Metabolism – Clinical and Experimental 51, 1253–1260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelley, DS, Branch, LB, Love, JE, Taylor, PC, Rivera, YM & Iacono, JM (1991) Dietary alpha-linolenic acid and immunocompetence in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, 40–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelley, DS, Nelson, GJ, Love, JE, Branch, LB, Taylor, PC, Schmidt, PC, Mackey, BE & Iacono, JM (1993) Dietary alpha-linolenic acid alters tissue fatty acid composition, but not blood lipids, lipoproteins or coagulation status in humans. Lipids 28, 533–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kestin, M, Clifton, P, Belling, GB & Nestel, PJ (1990) n-3 Fatty acids of marine origin lower systolic blood pressure and triglycerides but raise LDL cholesterol compared with n-3 and n-6 fatty acids from plants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 1028–1034.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kew, S, Banerjee, T, Minihane, AM, Finnegan, YE, Muggli, R, Albers, R, Williams, CM & Calder, PC (2003) Lack of effect of foods enriched with plant- or marine-derived n-3 fatty acids on human immune function. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 1287–1295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knapp, HR, Reilly, IA, Alessandrini, P & FitzGerald, GA (1986) In vivo indexes of platelet and vascular function during fish-oil administration in patients with atherosclerosis. New England Journal of Medicine 314, 937–942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kris-Etherton, PM, Harris, WS & Appel, LJ (2002) Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 106, 2747–2757.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kris-Etherton, PM, Taylor, DS, Yu-Poth, S, Huth, P, Moriarty, K, Fishell, V, Hargrove, RL, Zhao, G & Etherton, TD (2000) Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the United States. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71, Suppl.179S–188S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kromann, N & Green, A (1980) Epidemiological studies in the Upernavik district, Greenland. Incidence of some chronic diseases 1950–1974. Acta Medica Scandanavia 208, 401–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuzawa, CW (1998) Adipose tissue in human infancy and childhood: an evolutionary perspective. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 27, Suppl.177–209.3.0.CO;2-B>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kwon, JS, Snook, JT, Wardlaw, GM & Hwang, DH (1991) Effects of diets high in saturated fatty acids, canola oil, or safflower oil on platelet function, thromboxane B2 formation, and fatty acid composition of platelet phospholipids. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 154, 351–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lands, WE (2003) Diets could prevent many diseases. Lipids 38, 317–321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larque, E, Garcia-Ruiz, PA, Perez-Llamas, F, Zamora, S & Gil, A (2003) Dietary trans fatty acids alter the compositions of microsomes and mitochondria and the activities of microsome Δ6-fatty acid desaturase and glucose-6-phosphatase in livers of pregnant rats. Journal of Nutrition 133, 2526–2531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lauritzen, L, Hansen, HS, Jorgensen, MH & Michaelsen, KF (2001) The essentiality of long chain n-3 fatty acids in relation to development and function of the brain and retina. Progress in Lipid Research 40, 1–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Layne, KS, Goh, YK, Jumpsen, JA, Ryan, EA, Chow, P & Clandinin, MT. (1996) Normal subjects consuming physiological levels of 18:3(n-3) and 20:5(n-3) from flaxseed or fish oils have characteristic differences in plasma lipid and lipoprotein fatty acid levels. Journal of Nutrition 126, 2130–2140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, DS, Bertrand, HA, Masoro, EJ, McGill, HC, Carey, KD & McMahan, CA (1983) Preweaning nutrition and fat development in baboons. Journal of Nutrition 113, 2253–2259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, RA, Austen, KF & Soberman, RJ (1990) Leukotrienes and other products of the 5-lipoxygenase pathway: biochemistry and relation to pathobiology in human diseases. New England Journal of Medicine 323, 645–655.Google ScholarPubMed
Li, D, Sinclair, A, Wilson, A, Nakkote, S, Kelly, F, Abedin, L, Mann, N & Turner, A (1999) Effect of dietary alpha-linolenic acid on thrombotic risk factors in vegetarian men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69, 872–882.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Z, Kaplan, ML & Hachey, DL (2000) Hepatic microsomal and peroxisomal docosahexaenoate biosynthesis during piglet development. Lipids 35, 1325–1333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lichtenstein, AH, Ausman, LM, Carrasco, W, Jenner, JL, Gualtieri, LJ, Goldin, BR, Ordovas, JM & Schaefer, EJ (1993) Effects of canola, corn, and olive oils on fasting and postprandial plasma lipoproteins in humans as part of a National Cholesterol Education Program Step 2 diet. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis 13, 1533–1542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez-Garcia, E, Schulze, MB, Fung, TT, Meigs, JB, Rifai, N, Manson, JE & Hu, FB (2004) Major dietary patterns are related to plasma concentrations of markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80, 1029–1035.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macaulay, V, Hill, C, Achilli, A, Rengo, C, Clarke, D, Meehan, W, Blackburn, J, Semino, O, Scozzari, R, Cruciani, F, Taha, A, Shaari, NK, et al. (2005) Single, rapid coastal settlement of Asia revealed by analysis of complete mitochondrial genomes. Science 308, 1034–1036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCloy, U, Ryan, MA, Pencharz, PB, Ross, RJ & Cunnane, SCA (2004) Comparison of the metabolism of eighteen-carbon 13C-unsaturated fatty acids in healthy women. Journal of Lipid Research 45, 474–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McVeigh, GE, Brennan, GM, Cohn, JN, Finkelstein, SM, Hayes, RJ & Johnston, GD (1994) Fish oil improves arterial compliance in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis 14, 1425–1429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mantzioris, E, James, MJ, Gibson, RA & Cleland, LG (1994) Dietary substitution with an alpha-linolenic acid-rich vegetable oil increases eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations in tissues. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, 1304–1309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinez, M (2000) The fundamentals and practice of docosahexaenoic acid therapy in peroxisomal disorders. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 3, 101–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marzo, I, Alava, MA, Pineiro, A & Naval, J (1996) Biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid in human cells: evidence that two different delta 6-desaturase activities may exist. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1301, 263–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marzo, I, Martinez-Lorenzo, MJ, Anel, A, Desportes, P, Alava, MA, Naval, J & Pineiro, A (1995) Biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids in the main cell lineages of human leukemia and lymphoma. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1257, 140–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1997) Dietary Intake of Iodine and Fatty Acids. Food Information Surveillance Sheet no. 127. London: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.Google Scholar
Mitchell, DC, Niu, SL & Litman, BJ. (2003) Enhancement of G protein-coupled signalling by DHA phospholipids. Lipids 38, 437–443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muskiet, FA, Fokkema, MR, Schaafsma, A, Boersma, ER & Crawford, MA. (2004) Is docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) essential? Lessons from DHA status regulation, our ancient diet, epidemiology and randomized controlled trials. Journal of Nutrition 134, 183–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mutanen, M, Freese, R, Valsta, LM, Ahola, I & Ahlstrom, A (1992) Rapeseed oil and sunflower oil diets enhance platelet in vitro aggregation and thromboxane production in healthy men when compared with milk fat or habitual diets. Thrombosis and Haemostasis 67, 352–356.Google ScholarPubMed
Needleman, P, Wyche, A & Raz, A (1979) Platelet and blood vessel arachidonate metabolism and interactions. Journal of Clinical Investigation 63, 345–349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nestel, PJ, Pomeroy, SE, Sasahara, T, Yamashita, T, Liang, YL, Dart, AM, Jennings, GL, Abbey, M & Cameron, JD (1997) Arterial compliance in obese subjects is improved with dietary plant n-3 fatty acid from flaxseed oil despite increased LDL oxidizability. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 17, 1163–1170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neuringer, M, Connor, WE, Lin, DS, Barstad, L & Luck, S (1986) Biochemical and functional effects of prenatal and postnatal omega 3 fatty acid deficiency on retina and brain in rhesus monkeys. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 83, 4021–4025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newman, WP, Middaugh, JP, Propst, MT & Rogers, DR (1993) Atherosclerosis in Alaska natives and non-natives. Lancet 341, 1056–1057.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Brien, JS & Sampson, EL (1965) Fatty acid and fatty aldehyde composition of the major brain lipids in normal human gray matter, white matter, and myelin. Journal of Lipid Research 6, 545–551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ollis, TE, Meyer, BJ & Howe, PR (1999) Australian food sources and intakes of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 43, 346–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oomen, CM, Ocke, MC, Feskens, EJ, Kok, FJ & Kromhout, D (2001) Alpha-linolenic acid intake is not beneficially associated with 10-y risk of coronary artery disease incidence: the Zutphen Elderly Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 74, 457–463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ottosson, UB, Lagrelius, A, Rosing, U & von Schoultz, B (1984) Relative fatty acids composition of lecithin during postmenopausal replacement therapy – a comparison between ethinyl estradiol and estradiol valerate. Gynaecologic and Obstetric Investigation 18, 296–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pang, D, Allman-Farinelli, MA, Wong, T, Barnes, R & Kingham, KM (1998) Replacement of linoleic acid with alpha-linolenic acid does not alter blood lipids in normolipidaemic men. British Journal of Nutrition 80, 163–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pawlosky, R, Hibbeln, J, Lin, Y & Salem, N (2003 a) n-3 Fatty acid metabolism in women. British Journal of Nutrition 90, 993–994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pawlosky, RJ, Hibbeln, JR, Lin, Y, Goodson, S, Riggs, P, Sebring, N, Brown, GL & Salem, N (2003 b) Effects of beef- and fish-based diets on the kinetics of n-3 fatty acid metabolism in human subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 565–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pawlosky, RJ, Hibbeln, JR, Novotny, JA & Salem, N (2001) Physiological compartmental analysis of α-linolenic acid metabolism in adult humans. Journal of Lipid Research 42, 1257–1265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pietinen, P, Ascherio, A, Korhonen, P, Hartman, AM, Willett, WC, Albanes, D & Virtamo, J (1997) Intake of fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 145, 876–887.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pischon, T, Hankinson, SE, Hotamisligil, GS, Rifai, N, Willett, WC & Rimm, EB (2003) Habitual dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in relation to inflammatory markers among US men and women. Circulation 108, 155–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poisson, J-P, Dupuy, R-P, Sarda, P, Descomps, B, Narce, M, Rieu, D & Crastes de Paulet, A (1993) Evidence that liver microsomes of human neonates desaturate essential fatty acids. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1167, 109–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poissonnet, CM, Burdi, AR & Garn, SM (1984) The chronology of adipose tissue appearance and distribution in the human fetus. Early Human Development 10, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Postle, AD, Al, MDM, Burdge, GC & Hornstra, G (1995) The composition of individual molecular species of plasma phosphatidylcholine in human pregnancy. Early Human Development 43, 47–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poulos, A, Darin-Bennett, A & White, IG (1973) The phospholipid-bound fatty acids and aldehydes of mammalian spermatozoa. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 46B, 541–549.Google Scholar
Rallidis, LS, Paschos, G, Liakos, GK, Velissaridou, AH, Anastasiadis, G & Zampelas, A (2003) Dietary alpha-linolenic acid decreases C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A and interleukin-6 in dyslipidaemic patients. Atherosclerosis 167, 237–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rallidis, LS, Paschos, G, Papaioannou, ML, Liakos, GK, Panagiotakos, DB, Anastasiadis, G & Zampelas, A (2004) The effect of diet enriched with alpha-linolenic acid on soluble cellular adhesion molecules in dyslipidaemic patients. Atherosclerosis 174, 127–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roche, HM & Gibney, MJ (1999) Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and triacylglycerol metabolism in the postprandial state. Lipids 34, Suppl., S259–S265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salem, N, Powlosky, R, Wegher, B & Hibbeln, J (1999) In vivo conversion of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid in human adults. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 60, 407–410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salem, N, Wegher, B, Mena, P & Uauy, R (1996) Arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids are biosynthesized from their 18-carbon precursors in human infants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 93, 49–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salonen, JT, Salonen, R, Ihanainen, M, Parviainen, M, Seppanen, R, Kantola, M, Seppanen, K & Rauramaa, R (1988) Blood pressure, dietary fats, and antioxidants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48, 1226–1232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, TA & Roshanai, F. (1983) The influence of different types of omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood lipids and platelet function in healthy volunteers. Clinical Science (London) 64, 91–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, TA, Vickers, M & Haines, AP. (1981) Effect on blood lipids and haemostasis of a supplement of cod-liver oil, rich in eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, in healthy young men. Clinical Science (London) 61, 317–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, TA & Younger, KM (1981) The effect of dietary supplements of omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of platelets and plasma choline phosphoglycerides. British Journal of Nutrition 45, 613–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sauerwald, TU, Hachey, DL, Jensen, CL, Chen, H, Anderson, RE & Heird, WC (1997) Intermediates in endogenous synthesis of C22:6ω3 and C20:4ω6 by term and preterm infants. Pediatric Research 141, 183–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saunders, DR & Sillery, JK (1988) Absorption of triglyceride by human small intestine: dose-response relationships. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48, 988–991.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schrepf, R, Limmert, T, Claus Weber, P, Theisen, K & Sellmayer, A (2004) Immediate effects of n-3 fatty acid infusion on the induction of sustained ventricular tachycardia. Lancet 363, 1441–1442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheaff-Greiner, RC, Zhang, Q, Goodman, KJ, Giussani, DA, Nathanielsz, PW & Brenna, JT (1996) Linoleate, α-linolenate, and docosahexaenoate recycling into saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids is a major pathway in pregnant or lactating adults and fetal or infant rhesus monkeys. Journal of Lipid Research 37, 2675–2686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shoda, R, Matsueda, K, Yamato, S & Umeda, N (1996) Epidemiologic analysis of Crohn disease in Japan: increased dietary intake of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and animal protein relates to the increased incidence of Crohn disease in Japan. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, 741–745.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, JA, Fong, J, Bernert, JT & Browner, WS (1995) Serum fatty acids and the risk of stroke. Stroke 26, 778–782.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simopoulos, AP (2001) n-3 Fatty acids and human health: defining strategies for public policy. Lipids 36, S83–S89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sinclair, AJ, Attar-Bashi, NM & Li, D (2000) What is the role of α-linolenic acid for mammals? Lipids 37, 1113–1123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, P, Berger, I, Wirth, M, Godicke, W & Jaeger, W, Voigt, S (1986) Slow desaturation and elongation of linoleic and α-linolenic acids as rationale of eicosapentaenoic acid-rich diet to lower blood pressure and serum lipids in normal, hypertensive and hyperlipidemic subjects. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Medicine 24, 173–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sodergren, E, Gustafsson, IB, Basu, S, Nourooz-Zadeh, J, Nalsen, C, Turpeinen, A, Berglund, L & Vessby, B (2001) A diet containing rapeseed oil-based fats does not increase lipid peroxidation in humans when compared to a diet rich in saturated fatty acids. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55, 922–931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sorensen, NS, Marckmann, P, Hoy, CE, van Duyvenvoorde, W, Princen, HM (1998) Effect of fish-oil-enriched margarine on plasma lipids, low-density-lipoprotein particle composition, size, and susceptibility to oxidation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 235–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sprecher, H (2002) The roles of anabolic and catabolic reactions in the synthesis and recycling of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 67, 79–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suzukawa, M, Abbey, M, Howe, PR & Nestel, PJ (1995) Effects of fish oil fatty acids on low density lipoprotein size, oxidizability, and uptake by macrophages. Journal of Lipid Research 36, 473–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tagawa, H, Shimokawa, H, Tagawa, T, Kuroiwa-Matsumoto, M, Hirooka, Y & Takeshita, A (1999) Long-term treatment with eicosapentaenoic acid augments both nitric oxide-mediated and non-nitric oxide-mediated endothelium-dependent forearm vasodilatation in patients with coronary artery disease. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 33, 633–640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tang, AB, Nishimura, KY & Phinney, SD (1993) Preferential reduction in adipose tissue alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 omega 3) during very low calorie dieting despite supplementation with 18:3 omega 3. Lipids 28, 987–993.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tang, C, Cho, HP, Nakamura, MT & Clarke, SD (2003) Regulation of human (Δ-6 desaturase gene transcription: identification of a functional direct repeat-1 element. Journal of Lipid Research 44, 686–695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thies, F, Miles, EA, Nebe-von-Caron, G, Powell, JR, Hurst, TL, Newsholme, EA & Calder, PC (2001 a) Influence of dietary supplementation with long chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood inflammatory cell populations and functions and on plasma soluble adhesion molecules in healthy adults. Lipids 36, 1183–1193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thies, F, Nebe-von-Caron, G, Powell, JR, Yaqoob, P, Newsholme, EA & Calder, PC (2001 b) Dietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid, but not with other long chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, decreases natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects aged >55 years. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 73, 539–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thies, F, Nebe-von-Caron, G, Powell, JR, Yaqoob, PNewsholme, EA, Calder, PC (2001 c) Dietary supplementation with γ-linolenic acid or fish oil decreases T lymphocyte proliferation in healthy older humans. Journal of Nutrition 131, 1918–1927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tilley, SL, Coffman, TM & Koller, BH (2001) Mixed messages: modulation of inflammation and immune responses by prostaglandins and thromboxanes. Journal of Clinical Investigation 108, 15–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vermunt, SHF, Mensink, RP, Simonis, AMG & Hornstra, G (2000) Effects of dietary α-linolenic acid on the conversion and oxidation of [13C]-α-linolenic acid. Lipids 35, 137–142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vinton, NE, Heckenlively, JR, Laidlaw, SA, Martin, DA, Foxman, SR, Ament, ME & Kopple, JD (1990) Visual function in patients undergoing parenteral nutrition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 895–902.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
von Schacky, C, Fischer, S & Weber, PC (1985) Long-term effects of dietary marine omega-3 fatty acids upon plasma and cellular lipids, platelet function, and eicosanoid formation in humans. Journal of Clinical Investigation 76, 1626–1631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, FA, Miles, EA & Calder, PC (2003) Comparison of the effects of linseed oil and different doses of fish oil on mononuclear cell function in healthy human subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 89, 679–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weaver, BJ, Corner, EJ, Bruce, VM, McDonald, BE & Holub, BJ (1990) Dietary canola oil: effect on the accumulation of eicosapentaenoic acid in the alkenylacyl fraction of human platelet ethanolamine phosphoglyceride. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 594–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wensing, AG, Mensink, RP & Hornstra, G (1999) Effects of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from plant and marine origin on platelet aggregation in healthy elderly subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 82, 183–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiegand, RD, Koutz, CA, Stinson, AM & Anderson, RE (1991) Conservation of docosahexaenoic acid in rod outer segments of rat retina during n-3 and n-6 fatty acid deficiency. Journal of Neurochemistry 57, 1690–1699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, CM (1997) Postprandial lipid metabolism: effects of dietary fatty acids. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 56, 679–692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhao, G, Etherton, TD, Martin, KR, West, SG, Gillies, PJ & Kris-Etherton, PM (2004) Dietary alpha-linolenic acid reduces inflammatory and lipid cardiovascular risk factors in hypercholesterolemic men and women. Journal of Nutrition 134, 2991–2997.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed