Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-20T23:05:54.691Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Can artificial sweeteners help control body weight and prevent obesity?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

David Benton
David Benton*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Wales Swansea, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
*
Corresponding author: Dr David Benton, fax +44 1792 295 679, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

The possible role played by artificial sweeteners in the long-term maintenance of body weight is considered. Although artificial sweeteners can play a role in a short-term energy-controlled diet, the evidence that they are helpful over a longer period is limited. In those in the recommended weight range there is evidence of compensation; that is, the consumption of low-energy foods is followed by an increased energy intake to make up the lost energy. Energy compensation is more likely in those not displaying dietary restraint. The desire to remove sugar from the diet reflects an assumption that its intake is associated with obesity. However, the consumption of energy-dense food, that almost entirely reflects a high fat and low water content, is the best predictor of obesity. Diets offering a high proportion of energy in the form of carbohydrate tend to contain low levels of fat. There are several reports that the use of artificial sweeteners leads to an increased consumption of fat. The weak ability of fat to satisfy hunger makes it easy to overeat fatty foods; in contrast, carbohydrates promote a feeling of ‘fullness’. Various short-term studies have found that carbohydrate consumed as a liquid, rather than a solid, is more likely to result in weight gain.

Keywords

Artificial sweetenersObesity preventionBody-weight maintenanceEnergy densityEating behaviourSugar
Type
Research Articles
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 18 , Issue 1 , June 2005 , pp. 63 - 76
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2005

References

American Dietetic Association (2004) Position of the American Dietetic Association: use of nutritive and nonnutritive sweeteners. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104, 255–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, GH, Catherine, NLA, Woodend, DM & Wolever, TMS (2002) Inverse association between the effect of carbohydrates on blood glucose and subsequent short-term food intake in young men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76, 1023–1030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, GH & Leiter, LA (1996) Sweeteners and food intake: relevance to obesity. Progress in Obesity Research 7, 345–349.Google Scholar
Anderson, GH, Savaris, S, Schacher, S, Ziotkin, S & Leiter, LA (1989) Aspartame: effect on lunch-time food intake, appetite and hedonic response in children. Appetite 13, 93–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Astrup, A & Raben, A (1995) Carbohydrate and obesity. International Journal of Obesity 19, Suppl. 5, S27–S37.Google ScholarPubMed
Beaton, GH, Tarasuk, V & Anderson, GH (1992) Estimation of possible impact of non-caloric fat and carbohydrate substitutes on macro-nutrient intake in the human. Appetite 19, 87–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellisle, F, Altenburg de Assis, MA, Fieux, B, Preziosi, P, Galan, B, Guy-Grand, B & Herchberg, S (2001) Use of ‘light’ foods and drinks in French adults: biological, anthropometric and nutritional correlates. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 14, 191–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bellisle, F & Perez, C (1994) Low-energy substitutes for sugars and fats in the human diet: impact on nutritional regulation. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 18, 197–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benton, D (2002) Carbohydrate ingestion, blood glucose and mood. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 26, 293–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benton, D & Donohoe, RT (1999) The effects of nutrients on mood. Public Health Nutrition 2, 403–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berkey, CS, Rockett, HRH, Field, AE, Gillman, MW & Colditz, GA (2004) Sugar-added beverages and adolescent weight change. Obesity Research 12, 778–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birch, LL, McPhee, L & Sullivan, S (1989) Children's food intake following drinks sweetened with sucrose or aspartame: time course effects. Physiology and Behavior 45, 387–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackburn, GL, Kanders, BS, Lavin, PT, Keller, PT & Whatley, J (1997) The effect of aspartame as part of a multi-disciplinary weight-control program on short- and long-term control of body weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65, 409–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blundell, JE & Hill, AJ (1986) Paradoxical effects of an intense sweetener (aspartame) on appetite. Lancet i, 1092–1093.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolton-Smith, C & Woodward, M (1994) Dietary composition and fat to sugar ratios in relation to obesity. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 18, 820–828.Google ScholarPubMed
Bouche, C, Rizkalla, SW, Luo, J, Vidal, H, Veronese, A, Pacher, N, Fouquet, C, Lang, V & Slama, G (2002) Five week low-glycemic index diet decreases total fat mass and improves plasma lipid profile in moderately overweight nondiabetic men. Diabetes Care 25, 822–828.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bray, GA, Nielsen, SJ & Popkin, BM (2004) Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79, 537–543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, RG, Hashim, SA & van Itallie, TB (1971) Studies of food-intake regulation in man: responses to variations in nutritive density in lean and obese subjects. New England Journal of Medicine 285, 1402–1407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, L-NA & Parham, ES (1991) College students' use of high-intensity sweeteners is not consistently associated with sugar consumption. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 91, 686–690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colantuoni, C, Schwenker, J, McCarthy, J, Rada, P, Ladenheim, B, Cadet, JL, Schwartz, GJ, Moran, TH & Hoebel, BG (2001) Excessive sugar intake alters binding to dopamine and mu-opioid receptors in the brain. Neuroreport 16, 3549–3552.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Castro, J (1993) The effect of the spontaneous ingestion of particular foods for beverages on the meal pattern and overall nutrient intake of humans. Physiology and Behavior 53, 1133–1144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennison, BA, Rockwell, HL & Baker, SL (1997) Excess fruit juice consumption by preschool-aged children is associated with short stature and obesity. Pediatrics 99, 15–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drewnowski, A (1998) Energy density, palatability and satiety: implications for weight control. Nutrition Reviews 55, 31–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drewnowski, A (1999) Intense sweeteners and energy density of foods: implication for weight control. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, 757–763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drewnowski, A, Massien, C, Louis-Sylvestre, J, Fricker, J, Chapelot, D & Apfelbaum, M (1994) Comparing the effects of aspartame and sucrose on motivational ratings, taste preferences and energy intakes in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, 338–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, KH, Bacon, JA & Weinsier, RL (1983) The effects of high- and low-energy density diets on satiety, energy intake and eating time of obese and nonobese subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 37, 763–767.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, E (1989) Effect of the withdrawal of artificial sweeteners on energy intake of stabilized post-obese women. International Journal of Obesity 13, Suppl. 1, 111.Google Scholar
Fernstrom, JD (1988) Carbohydrate ingestion and brain serotonin synthesis: relevance to a putative control loop for regulating carbohydrate ingestion, and effects of aspartame consumption. Appetite 11, Suppl. 1, 35–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernstrom, JD, Fernstrom, MH & Grubb, PE (1986) Effects of aspartame ingestion on the carbohydrate-induced rise in tryptophan hydroxylase rate in rat brain. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 44, 97–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Figlewicz, DP, Stein, LJ, West, D, Porte, D & Woods, SC (1986) Intracisternal insulin alters sensitivity to CCK-induced meal suppression in baboons. American Journal of Physiology 250, R856–R860.Google ScholarPubMed
Foltin, RW, Fischman, MW, Emurian, CS & Rachlinski, JJ (1988) Compensation for caloric dilution in humans given unrestricted access to food in a residential laboratory. Appetite 10, 13–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foltin, RW, Fischman, MW, Moran, TH, Rolls, BJ & Kelly, TH (1990) Caloric compensation for lunches varying in fat and carbohydrate content by humans in a residential laboratory. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 969–980.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gatenby, SJ, Aaron, JI, Jack, VA & Mela, DJ (1997) Extended use of foods modified in fat and sugar content: nutritional implications in a free-living female population. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65, 1867–1873.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerozissis, K (2004) Brain insulin and feeding: a bi-directional communication. European Journal of Pharmacology 490, 59–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerozissis, K, Rouch, C, Lemierre, S, Nicolaidis, S & Orosco, M (2001) A potential role of central insulin in learning and memory related to feeding. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 21, 389–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gosnell, BA, Krahn, DD & Majchrzak, MJ (1990) The effects of morphine on diet selection are dependent upon baseline preferences. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 37, 207–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guthrie, JF & Morton, JF (2000) Food sources of added sweeteners in the diets of Americans. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 100, 43–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, WL, Millward, DJ, Rogers, PJ & Morgan, LM (2003) Physiological mechanisms mediating aspartame-induced satiety. Physiology and Behavior 78, 557–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Havel, PJ (2001) Peripheral signals conveying metabolic information to the brain: short-term and long-term regulation of food intake and energy homeostasis. Experimental Biology and Medicine 226, 963–977.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Havel, PJ, Townsend, R, Chaump, L & Teff, K (1999) High-fat meals reduce 24 h circulating leptin concentrations in women. Diabetes 48, 334–341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, JO & Prentice, AM (1995) Sugar and body weight regulation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62, 264S–273S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holt, SHA, Brand Miller, JC, Petocz, P & Farmakalidis, E (1995) A satiety index of common foods. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49, 675–690.Google ScholarPubMed
James, J, Thomas, P, Cavan, D & Kerr, D (2004) Preventing childhood obesity by reducing consumption of carbonated drinks: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ 328, 1237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanders, BS, Lavin, PT, Kowalchuk, MB, Greenberg, I & Blackburn, GL (1988) An evaluation of the effect of aspartame on weight loss. Appetite 11, Suppl. 1, 73–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanders, BS, Lavin, BT, Kowalchuk, M & Blackburn, GL (1990) Do aspartame (APM)-sweetened foods and beverages aid in long-term control of body weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 515.Google Scholar
Kelley, AE, Bakshi, VP, Fleming, S & Holahan, MR (2000) A pharmacological analysis of the substrates underlying conditioned feeding induced by repeated opioid stimulation of the nucleus accumbens. Neuropharmacology 23, 455–467.Google ScholarPubMed
Kelley, AE, Bakshi, VP, Haber, SN, Steininger, TL, Will, MJ & Zhang, M (2002) Opioid modulation of taste hedonics within the ventral striatum. Physiology and Behavior 76, 365–377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krebs-Smith, SM (2001) Choose beverages and foods to moderate your intake of sugars: measurement requires quantification. Journal of Nutrition 131, 527S–535S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lavin, JH, French, SJ & Read, NW (1997) The effect of sucrose- and aspartame-sweetened drinks on energy intake, hunger and food choice of female moderately restrained eaters. International Journal of Obesity 21, 37–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leon, AS, Hunninghake, DB, Bell, C, Rassin, DK & Tephly, TR (1989) Safety of long-term large doses of aspartame. Archives of Internal Medicine 149, 2318–2324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerer-Metzger, M, Rizkalla, SW, Luo, J, Champ, M, Kabir, M, Bruzzo, F, Barnet, F & Slama, G (1996) Effects of long-term low-glycaemic index starchy food on plasma glucose and lipid concentration and adipose tissue cellularity in normal and diabetic rats. British Journal of Nutrition 75, 723–732.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, AS, Kotz, CM & Gosnell, BA (2003) Sugars and fats: the neurobiology of preference. Journal of Nutrition 133, 835–837.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, AS & Heaton, AW (1993) Weight control practices of US adults trying to lose weight. Annals of Internal Medicine 119, 661–666.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Louis-Sylvestre, J, Tornier, A, Verger, P, Chabert, M & Delorme, B (1989) Learned caloric adjustment of human intake. Appetite 12, 95–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ludwig, DS (2000) Dietary glycemic index and obesity. Journal of Nutrition 130, 280S–283S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ludwig, DS, Peterson, KE & Gortmaker, SL (2001) Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective observational analysis. Lancet 357, 505–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mattes, RD (1996) Dietary compensation by humans for supplemental energy provided as ethanol or carbohydrate in fluids. Physiology and Behavior 59, 179–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mela, DJ (1997) Fat and sugar substitutes: implications for dietary intakes and energy balance. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 56, 827–840.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naismith, DJ & Rhodes, C (1995) Adjustment in energy intake following the covert removal of sugar from the diet. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 8, 167–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicklas, TA, Yang, S-J, Baranowski, T, Zakeri, I & Berenson, G (2003) Eating patterns and obesity in children. The Bogalusa Heart Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 25, 9–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Brien Nabors, L (1999) Consumer perceptions of products containing sweeteners: USA. Low-calorie sweeteners: present and future. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 85, 140–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ott, DB, Edwards, CL & Palmer, SJ (1991) Perceived taste intensity and duration of nutritive and non-nutritive sweeteners using time-intensity evaluations. Journal of Food Sciences 56, 535–542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pal, GK & Thombre, DP (1993) Modulation of feeding and drinking by dopamine in caudate and accumbens nuclei in rats. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 31, 455–467.Google ScholarPubMed
Parham, ES & Parham, AR (1980) Saccharin use and sugar intake by college students. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 76, 560–563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pawlak, DB, Ebbeling, CB & Ludwig, DS (2002) Should obese patients be counseled to follow a low-glycaemic index diet? Yes. Obesity Review 3, 235–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pliner, P & Stallberg-White, C (2000) Pass the ketchup please; familiar flavours increase children's willingness to taste novel foods. Appetite 34, 95–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poppitt, SD & Prentice, AM (1996) Energy density and its role in the control of food intake: evidence from metabolic and community studies. Appetite 26, 153–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porikos, KP, Booth, G, van Itallie, TB (1977) Effect of covert nutritive dilution on the spontaneous food intake of obese individuals: a pilot study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 30, 1638–1644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porikos, KP, Hesser, MF, van Itallie, TB (1982) Caloric regulation in normal weight men maintained on a palatable diet of conventional foods. Physiology and Behavior 29, 293–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raben, A (2002) Should obese patients be counseled to follow a low-glycaemic index diet? No. Obesity Reviews 3, 245–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raben, A, Vasilaras, TH, Moller, AC & Astrup, A (2002) Sucrose compared with artificial sweeteners: different effects on ad libitum food intake and body weight after 10 weeks of supplementation in overweight subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76, 721–729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, M & Hammersley, R (1998) The effect of blind substitution of aspartame-sweetened for sugar-sweetened soft drinks on appetite and mood. British Food Journal 100, 254–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renwick, AG (1993) Intense sweeteners, food intake and the weight of a body of evidence. Physiology and Behavior 55, 139–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodin, J (1990) Comparative effects of fructose, aspartame, glucose and water preloads on calorie and macro-nutrient intake. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 428–435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, PJ, Burley, VJ, Alikhanizadeh, LA & Blundell, JE (1995) Postingestive inhibition of food intake by aspartame: importance of interval between aspartame administration and subsequent eating. Physiology and Behavior 57, 489–493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, PJ, Carlyle, J, Hill, AJ & Blundell, JE (1988) Uncoupling sweet taste and calories: comparison of the effects of glucose and three intense sweeteners on hunger and food intake. Physiology and Behavior 43, 547–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, PJ, Pleming, HC & Blundell, JE (1990) Aspartame ingested without tasting inhibits hunger and food intake. Physiology and Behavior 47, 1239–1243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolls, BJ, Bell, EA & Thorwart, ML (1999) Water incorporated into a food but not served with a food decreases energy intake in lean women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70, 448–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rolls, BJ, Castellanos, VH, Halford, JC, Kilara, A, Panyam, D, Pelkman, CL, Smith, GP & Thorwart, ML (1998) Volume of food consumed affects satiety in men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 67, 1170–1177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolls, BJ, Fedoroff, IC, Guthrie, JF & Laster, LJ (1990) Foods with different satiating effects in humans. Appetite 15, 115–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolls, BJ, Kim-Harris, S, Fischman, MW, Moran, TH & Stoner, SA (1994) Satiety after preloads with different amounts of fat and carbohydrate: implications for obesity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, 476–487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saris, WHM, Astrup, A, Prentice, AM, Zunft, HJ, Formiguera, X, Verboeket-van de Venne, WP, Raben, A, Poppitt, SD, Seppelt, B, Johnston, S, Vasilaras, TH & Keogh, GF (2000) Randomized controlled trial of changes in dietary carbohydrate/fat ratio and simple vs complex carbohydrates on body weight and blood lipids. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 24, 1310–1318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, MW, Boyko, EJ, Kahn, SE, Ravussin, E & Bogardus, C (1995) Reduced insulin secretion: an independent predictor of body weight gain. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 80, 1571–1576.Google ScholarPubMed
Slabber, M, Barnard, HC, Kuyl, JM, Dannhauser, A & Schall, R (1994) Effects of a low-insulin-response, energy-restricted diet on weight loss and plasma insulin concentrations in hyperinsulinemic obese females. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, 48–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spiegel, TA (1973) Caloric regulation of food intake in man. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 84, 24–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stellman, SD & Garfinkel, L (1986) Artificial sweetener use and one-year weight change among women. Preventive Medicine 15, 195–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stubbs, RJ, Harbron, CG & Prentice, AM (1996) Covert manipulation of the dietary fat to carbohydrate ratio of isoenergetically dense diets: effects on food intake in feeding men ad libitum. International Journal of Obesity 20, 651–660.Google ScholarPubMed
Stubbs, RJ, Murgatroyd, PR, Goldberg, GR & Prentice, AM (1993) Carbohydrate balance and the regulation of day-to-day food intake in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57, 897–903.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teff, KL, Young, SN, Marchand, L & Botez, MI (1989) Acute effect of protein or carbohydrate breakfasts on human cerebrospinal fluid monoamine precursor and metabolite levels. Journal of Neurochemistry 52, 235–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tordoff, MG (1988) Sweeteners and appetite. In Sweeteners: Health Effects, pp. 53–60 [Williams, GM, editor]. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Scientific.Google Scholar
Tordoff, MG & Alleva, AM (1990) Effect of drinking soda sweetened with aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup on food intake and body weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 963–969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tordoff, MG & Friedman, MI (1989) Drinking saccharin increases food intake and preference: I. Comparison with other drinks. Appetite 12, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Troiana, RP, Briefel, RR, Marroll, MD & Bialostosky, K (2000) Energy and fat intakes of children and adolescents in the United States: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72, 1343S–1353S.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuorila, H, Pangborn, RM & Schutz, HG (1990) Choosing a beverage: comparison of preferences and beliefs related to the reported consumption of regular vs diet soda. Appetite 14, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Stratum, P, Lussenburg, RN, van Wezel, LA, Vergroesen, AJ & Cremer, HD (1978) The effect of dietary carbohydrate:fat ratio on energy intake by adult women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31, 206–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vermut, SHF, Pasman, WJ, Schaafsma, G & Kardinaal, FM (2003) Effects of sugar intake on body weight: a review. Obesity Reviews 4, 91–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vickers, SP & Dourish, CT (2004) Serotonin receptor ligands and the treatment of obesity. Current Opinion in Investigational Drugs 5, 377–388.Google ScholarPubMed
Woods, SC, Decke, E & Vasselli, JR (1974) Metabolic hormones and regulation of body weight. Psychological Review 81, 26–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wooley, OW (1971) Long-term food regulation in the obese and nonobese. Psychosomatic Medicine 33, 436–444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization (2003) Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases. WHO Technical Report no. 916. Report of Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation. Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
Wurtman, RJ, Hefti, F & Melamed, E (1981) Precursor control of neurotransmitter synthesis. Pharmacological Review 32, 315–335.Google Scholar
Yeomans, MR, Wright, P, Macleod, HA & Critchley, JA (1990) Effects of nalmefene on feeding in humans. Dissociation of hunger and palatability. Psychopharmacology 100, 426–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, M, Gosnell, BA & Kelley, AE (1998) Intake of high-fat food is selectively enhanced by mu opioid receptor stimulation within the nucleus accumbens. Journal of Pharmacology and Expermental Therapeutics 285, 908–914.Google ScholarPubMed
Zhang, M & Kelley, AE (1997) Opiate agonists microinjected into the nucleus accumbens enhance sucrose drinking in rats. Psychopharmacology 132, 350–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, M & Kelley, AE (2002) Intake of saccharin, salt, and ethanol solutions is increased by infusion of a mu opioid agonist into the nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology 159, 415–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar