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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 19 March 2021
The way in which Greek places of worship feature in the current popular imagination is much influenced by the remnants of a few surviving temples, such as Athena's Parthenon or Poseidon's temple at Sounion. Yet these aesthetically pleasing but ruined and empty buildings give little insight into their former functions or furnishings. Moreover, a (perhaps unconscious) comparison with modern religious buildings, such as churches, mosques, and synagogues, might lead us to think of an ancient sanctuary as normally consisting of just the temple – which would be a real mistake. So let us first look at sanctuaries proper (§1), then their locations (§2), and, finally, their secular and religious functions (§3).
1 For a good introduction, see Miles 2016.
2 Note the interesting observations of Naerebout 2005 and Steuernagel 2009.
3 Older bibliography: Østby 1993; Burkert 2001–11: vi.177–207; Brulé 2012. Recent informative collections: Mazarakis Ainian 2017; Partida and Schmidt-Dounas 2019. Note that Parker 2011: xi–xii pays virtually no attention to sanctuaries.
4 For the development of Greek sanctuaries from the Mycenaean period until the early Iron Age, see the instructive survey in Eder 2019.
5 Fehr 1996; Burkert 2001–11: vi.196-207; Mazarakis Ainian 2016. For the vocabulary of sanctuaries, see Casevitz 1984; García Ramón 2007.
6 Hellmann 1993.
7 On water, see Cole 1988; Trinkl 2009. On trees, see Burkert 1985: 29–30. For sacred groves, see Birge 1982; Scheid 1993; Bonnechere 2007. On stones, see Dowden 1989: 138–40.
8 On altars, see Etienne 1992; Ekroth 2001, 2009; Hellmann 2006: 122–44.
9 Genovese 1999; Baumer 2004; Sporn 2013b; Laferrière 2019.
10 Sourvinou-Inwood 1993: 8, 16 n. 60 (e.g. no temple in the Miletan Delphinion before the Romans).
11 Kearns 1992: 65–8; Pariente 1992: 204–16; Boehringer 2001.
12 Bremmer 2019e: 101–3.
13 There has been much recent interest in this area: Scheer 2000; Bettinetti 2001; Graf 2001; Steiner 2001; Linant de Bellefonds et al. 2004; Mylonopoulos 2010; Collard 2016; Hölscher 2017; Bremmer 2019e: 104–13.
14 Jung 1982; see also Graf 1985: 44f.
15 Fehrentz 1993 (Apollo Agyieus); Graf 2006 (Eros). In general, see Gaifman 2012; Lang 2016; Hölscher 2017: 224–38.
16 See Brinkman and Scholl 2010.
17 Bremmer 2019e: 108–11.
18 Graf 1985: 81–96 (fundamental); Icard-Gianolio 2004; Eich 2011: 371–99; Boschung 2015; Hölscher 2017: 148–71.
19 Ar. fr. 240; Adespota fr. 948 Kassel/Austin; van Straten 1974: 187–9.
20 Mattern 2007; Mylonopoulos 2011.
21 For priests and priestesses, see Pirenne-Delforge and Georgoudi 2005; Dignas and Trampedach 2008; Parker 2011: 48–57; this volume, Chapter 1, §3 and Chapter VI.
22 For the difficulties in defining the priesthood and differentiating it from a magistracy, see Bremmer 2012; Henrichs 2019: 177–92.
23 Parker 2011: 43 (inheritance), 49, 235–6 (priesthoods for sale).
24 Mantis 1990: 28–65 (keys), 82–96 (iconography of priests), 114–15 (catalogue of preserved keys); Karatas 2019.
25 Graf 1985: 40 (calling), 214 (Athena's priest). On bird fouling, see Eur. Ion 106–9; Maxmin 1975 (metal ‘umbrellas’ to protect statues); Danner 1993.
26 On adolescents, see Bremmer 1999c: 189–90; Cole 2004: 132; Leventis 2019: 72–4. On identification with the gods, see Bérard 1989; Pirenne-Delforge 2010.
27 Sporn 2015.
28 Ekroth 2001, 2002: 23–74, 2009.
29 On locations of sanctuaries in Magna Graecia, see Edlund 1987; Pugliese Carratelli 1988: 149–58. On Greece and the Aegean, see Schachter 1994; Osborne and Alcock 1994; Cole 2004: 21.
30 For the supra-local sanctuaries, see Freitag and Haake 2019.
31 As is persuasively argued by Graf 1982: 166.
32 For Athena, see Burkert 1985: 140; Graf 1985: 44. For Zeus, see Graf 1985: 182, 197, 202–3 (mountains); Parker 1996: 29–33; van den Eijnde 2010–11; Romano 2019. On mountains in general, see Langdon 2000; Accorinti 2010; Sporn 2013a.
33 Graf 1979a (near the sea or in the agora) and 1985: 222 (Apollo Lykeios in the agora); Jameson 2014: 41–61 (Apollo Lykeios outside the walls in Athens).
34 Cole 2000 (fundamental). See also Işik 2000: 230; Tantillo 2015. Locations of Demeter's sanctuary on an acropolis (Thebes, Mytilene, Lepreon) may derive from the goddess's connection with political power (Chapter II, §3).
35 See Paus. 2.5.4 (Corinth), 2.18.3 (Argos; see also Piérart 1982), 2.35.11 (Hermione).
36 Poseidon's sanctuaries are often near the sea but also in the mountains: see Bremmer 2019e: 26.
37 There were no temples of Dionysos in classical times, but the name of his sanctuary in Athens, en limnais (‘in the marshes’), suggests locations outside the city, as does the fact that on vases Dionysos’ sanctuary is often a cave (see Bérard 1976).
38 Corso 1984 (Paros); Lattanzi 1991: 67–71 (Croton); Hägg 1992: 14–16 (Argos); Junker 1993 (Paestum); Walter, Clemente, and Niemeier 2019 (Samos). In general, see Graf 1982: 166–71.
39 Cole 2004: 179–97.
40 Leschhorn 1984; Malkin 1987: 189–240; Hornblower 1991–2009: i.20f.
41 Malkin 2009; Bremmer 2019e: 215–17 (secret graves).
42 On hero sanctuaries, see Kearns 1992; Ekroth 2007: 108–11. For Apollo, see Graf 1985: 173–6; von Mangoldt 2013.
43 Rusten 1983 (quotation from 296). On onomastics, see Robert 1989: 261; Parker 2000c.
44 These aspects are under-researched, but see Ghinatti 1983.
45 Leypold 2008; Bentz and Bumke 2013; Mylona 2015.
46 Christensen 1984; Sinn 2000.
47 Horster 2004; Papazarkadas 2011; Rousset 2013 (with thanks to Edward Harris); Patera 2016.
48 Brunet 1990; Dillon 1997; Mylonopoulos 2008; Horster 2010.
49 On trees, see Jordan and Perlin 1984; Henrichs 2019: 503–27.
50 Parker 1983: 160–6; Chaniotis 1988.
51 For Selinus, see SEG 34.970. It was not until the fourth century that these treasures, which the inviolability of sanctuaries had always protected, became the object of looting: see Parker 1983: 170–6; Pritchett 1991: 160–8; Trampedach 2005. On stealing from temples, see Kosmetatou 2003.
52 On temples as banks, see Ampolo 1989–90; Chankowski 2005, 2011; Migeotte 2006.
53 Thomas 1989: 38–40 (the Metroon); Hölkeskamp 1992: 99–102; Hawke 2011.
54 For Dodona, see, most recently, Parker 2016; Chaniotis 2017; and, in general, Piccinini 2017. On Delphi, see C. Morgan 1990; Scott 2015. On Olympia, see Sinn 1991. For oracular shrines in general, see Friese 2010.
55 For the Amphiaraion, see Roesch 1984. For the Trophoneion, see Bonnechere 2003. For Didyma and Klaros, see Oesterheld 2008.
56 Parker 2000a.
57 Rask 2016.
58 Brøns 2016.
59 Van Straten 1981, 2000; Osborne 2004; Parker 2004; Duplouy 2006: 185–249; Greco and Ferrara 2008; Prêtre 2009; Papasavvas and Fourrier 2012; Lindström and Pilz 2013. For painted votives, see Nowicka 1990. For formulas of votive inscriptions, see Lazzarini 1989–90.
60 Salapata 2018.
61 Nenci 1993; Bassi 2014.
62 On Phoenicians, see Kilian-Dirlmeier 1985, to be read with the qualifications of Mylonopoulos 2008; on Etruscans, see A. Johnston 1993; on Lydians, see Kerschner 2006; on Egyptians, see Bumke 2007; in general, see Kaplan 2006.
63 Baitinger 2011; Frielinghaus 2011; Jim 2014: 176–202; Graells i Fabregat and Longo 2018; J. Schröder 2020: 24–101.
64 For this aspect of sanctuaries, see Eidinow 2020.
65 See Scheer 1996; Shaya 2006; Haake and Jung 2011.
66 Anth. Graeca 6.280 (girl); Martini 1990.
67 See Forsén 1996; Oberhelman 2014; Schörner 2015; Petridou 2016; Draycott and Graham 2017; Hughes 2017; Graham 2020.
68 Alroth 1989, 1989–90.
69 Krumeich 1991.
70 Nering 2015.
71 Boessneck and von den Driesch 1981, 1993; Ekroth 2018a. In general, see Tassignon 2005. On peacocks, see Antiphanes, fr. 173; Menodotus FGrH 541 F 2.
72 Shaya 2005; Tanner 2006: 205–36.
73 D. Harris 1995; Paliompeis 1996; Krumeich 2008: 73–7; Sporn 2014.
74 Aleshire 1989: 177–248 (inventory), 1991: 41–6 (quotation at 46).
75 See Frielinghaus 2010, 2013.
76 On the changes, see Snodgrass 1989–90; Barringer 2010: 170–1.