No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
The Anti-Discrimination Principle as an Instrument of Change in Family Law
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 21 May 2009
Abstract
Although many of the difficulties of working with the anti-discrimination principle are generally well-known infields such as employment law and social security, less is known about how the principle works and what difficulties can be encountered in practice in the field of family law. In recent times there has been an increased tendency to invoke the anti-discrimination principle in family law, not always to good effect. This article, which is based on a study of Dutch, German and European Court and Commission of Human Rights case law, explores the various practical and theoretical aspects.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © T.M.C. Asser Press 1998
References
1. Brown v. Board of Education, 347 US 483 (1954); Boiling v. Sharpe, 347 US 497 (1954) ‘separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.’
2. Loenen, T., Verschil in gelijkheid [The Difference in Equality] (Zwolle, Tjeenk Willink 1992) pp. 96–111.Google Scholar
3. Nhlapo, R.Th., ‘International Protection of Human Rights and the Family: African Variations on a Common Theme’, 3 International Journal of Law and the Family (1989) p. 1 at pp. 10–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4. Kamchedzera, G., ‘The New Constitution and the Family: Malawi Report’, in Bainham, A., ed., International Society of Family Law Survey 1994 (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff 1995) pp.321–327 (section 24(1) equal protection clause).Google Scholar
5. Nhlapo, R.Th., ‘South African Family Law at the Crossroads: From Parliamentary Supremacy to Constitutionalism’, in Bainham, A., ed., International Society of Family Law Survey 1994 (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff 1995) pp. 419–434;Google ScholarSinclair, J., ‘Family Rights’, in Wyk, D. Van, Rights and Constitutionalism, The New South AfricanLegal Order (Kenwyn, Juta&Co. 1994) pp. 502–572.Google Scholar
6. Medina, M. Do Carmo, ‘Affiliation in the New Angolan Family Code’, in Bainham, A., ed., International Society of Family Law Survey 1994 (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff 1995) pp. 29–35 (Art. 4 guarantees equality to children).Google Scholar
7. Since Latvia joined the ECHR on 27 June 1997, only four out of the forty countries which are members of the Council of Europe are not members of the ECHR (Moldavia, Ukraine, Russia and Croatia), 22 NJCM-Bulletin (1997) p. 770.
8. The Treaty of Amsterdam amending the Treaty of European Union, the Treaties establishing the European Communities and certain related acts. Art. 6a (which will become Art. 13 when the Treaty comes into force) provides: ‘Without prejudice to the other provisions of this Treaty and within the limits of the powers conferred by it upon the Community, the Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after consulting the European Parliament, may take appropriate action to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation.’
9. Wadham, J., ‘Bringing Rights Home, Labour's Plans to Incorporate the European Convention on Human Rights into U.K. Law, Public Law (1997) pp. 75–79.Google Scholar
10. M. Beloff and H. Mountfield have argued that incorporation is not necessary because the judiciary are already applying the ECHR, ‘Unconventional behaviour? Judicial uses of the European Convention in England and Wales’, 1 EHRLR (1996) p. 5. This view is disputed by Klug, F., and Starmer, K., ‘Incorporation through the back door?’, Public Law (1997) pp. 223–233.Google Scholar See further Hunt, M., Using Human Rights in English Courts (Oxford, Hart Publishing 1997).Google Scholar
11. Verschragen, B., Gleichheit im Familienrecht, Beiträge Zum europäischen Familienrecht, Vol. 3 (Bielefeld, Gieseking 1997).Google Scholar
12. Art. 93(2) German Basic Law.
13. Art. 93(4)(a) German Basic Law.
14. Art. 100(1) German Basic Law.
15. 4 May 1984, NJ (Nederlandse Jurisprudentie) 1985 No. 510, note E.A. Alkema and E.A.A. Luijten, consideration 3.5.
16. Belgian Linguistics case, 23 July 1986, Series A, Vol. 6, para. 10; Inze v. Austria, 28 October 1987, Series A, Vol. 126, para. 41; Darby v. Sweden, 23 October 1990, Series A, Vol. 187, para. 31.
17. Belgian Linguistics case, ibid., para. 10.
18. In Stubbings v. United Kingdom, 22 October 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions (1996-IV) p. 1487, para. 72 the European Court spoke of ‘relevantly similar situations’.
19. Karlheinz Schmidt v. Germany, 18 July 1994, Series A, Vol. 291–B, para. 22; Van Raalte v. the Netherlands, 21 February 1997, Reports of Judgments and Decisions (1997–1) p. 173, para. 39.
20. NJ 1986 Nos. 585–598, note E.A. Alkema and E.A.A. Luijten.
21. Art. 161 (former), book 1, Dutch Civil Code.
22. 4 May 1984, NJ 1985 No. 510, note E.A. Alkema and E.A.A. Luijten.
23. 21 March 1986, NJ 1986 No. 585, consideration 3.3.
24. Appl. 9639/82, D & R 36 pp. 130–142 (15 March 1984).
25. The point was also ignored by Advocate-General Moltmaker.
26. Appl. 9639/82, D & R 36 p. 130 at p. 139, para. 3.
27. Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 56, 363 at p. 390.
28. Ibid., at p. 386.
29. Appl. 9639/82, D & R 36 p. 130 (15 March 1984) at pp. 141–142.
30. NJ 1993 No. 286, note E.A.A. Luijten.
31. Now laid down in Art. 204(l)(c), book 1, Dutch Civil Code. The new provisions were introduced by the Act of 24 December 1997 to amend the law of descent and the regulation of adoption, Stb. (Staatsblad) 1997, 772. At the time of going to press it was expected that the Act will come into force in 1998.
32. For particulars on a usual situation (mother lives with child): Dutch Supreme Court, 18 May 1990, NJ 1991 Nos. 374–375; Dutch Supreme Court, 22 February 1991, NJ 1991 No. 376; Dutch Supreme Court, 22 October 1993, NJ 1994 No. 65: and on an unusual situation (mother does not live with child, and father has been involved with upbringing), Dutch Supreme Court, 8 April 1988, NJ 1989 No. 170; Dutch Supreme Court, 20 December 1991, NJ 1992 No. 598; Dutch Supreme Court, 28 October 1994, NJ 1995 No. 261.
33. Dutch Supreme Court, 3 April 1992, consideration 3.2.
34. MacKinnon, C. A., Feminism Unmodified, Discourses on Life and Law (Cambridage, Mass., Harvard University Press 1988) pp. 37–45.Google Scholar
35. Keegan v. Ireland, 26 May 1994, Series A, Vol. 291, para. 45; Kroon v. the Netherlands, 27 October 1994, Series A, Vol. 297–C, para. 30.
36. M v. the Netherlands, Appl. 16944/90 (8 February 1993), Rechtspraak Nemesis (1995–3) case number 489, pp. 22–28.
37. Dutch Supreme Court, 22 December 1995, NJ 1996 No. 419, note J. de Boer.
38. Introduced by the Act of 24 December 1997 to amend the law of descent and the regulation of adoption, Stb. 1997, 772. See n. 31 above.
39. Act of 5 July 1997 to amend book 1, Civil Code and Code on Civil Procedure in connection with the introduction of registration of partnership, Stb. 1997, 324, legislative bill 23 761. The Act introduces Arts. 80(a)-80(e), book 1, Civil Code, but consequential amendments have been necessary throughout the Civil Code.
40. The question was raised on 16 April 1996, Second Chamber of Parliament 1995–1996, Memorandum on Family Forms, 22 700, number 20. The Hawaiian Supreme Court has held that it is discriminatory to deny marriage to same-sex partners, unless the state can demonstrate that the policy is based upon ‘compelling state interests’, Baehr v. Lewin 852 P.2d 44 (Hawaii 1993).
41. Second Chamber of Parliament 1994–1995, Memorandum on Family Forms, 22 700, number 5; Second Chamber of Parliament 1994–1995, legislative bill to amend book 1, Dutch Civil Code and Code of Civil Procedure to introduce registration of cohabitation, 23 761, number 5 (both documents dated 7 September 1995).
42. NRC Handelsblad 29 October 1997, p. 3.
43. See n. 1 above.
44. Kortmann Commission to investigate making marriage available to partners of the same sex, The Hague, October 1997, pp. 14–16.
45. NRC Handelsblad 7 February 1998, p. 3.
46. 28 November 1984, Series A, Vol. 87.
47. Ibid., para. 19.
48. Annex to European Court report, para. 75. The Commission stated, which could not have added to the clarity of the situation: ‘The existing differences between them, including their conflicting interests, fall to be considered under the issue as to whether the difference in treatment is objectively and reasonably justified’, para. 75.
49. Rasmussen, para. 37.
50. Appl. 18535/91, appended to Eur. Court H.R., 27 October 1994, Series A, Vol. 297–C.
51. Dijk, P. van and Hoof, P. van, Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights, 2nd edn. (Deventer, Kluwer 1990) pp. 540–547.Google Scholar
52. A very useful discussion is provided by Gubelt, M. in Münch, I. von and Kunig, P., eds., Grundgesetz-Kommentar, Vol. I, 4th edn. (München, C.H. Beck'sche Verlagbuchhandlung 1992), Art. 3, para. 16a.Google Scholar
53. Eur. Court H.R., 23 November 1983, Series A, Vol. 70, para. 46.
54. Eur. Court H.R., 18 December 1986, Series A, Vol. 112, para. 60.
55. Eur. Court H.R., 22 October 1996, Reports of Judgments andDecisions (1996-IV) p. 1487, para. 73.
56. Eur. Court H.R., 21 February 1997, Reports of Judgments and Decisions (1997–I) p. 173, para. 40.
57. Eur. Court H.R., 28 November 1984, Series A, Vol. 87, para. 41.
58. Ibid., paras. 39(i), 41.
59. Van Dijk and Van Hoof, op. cit. n. 51, at p. 545.
60. 24 February 1989, NJ 1989 No. 741, note E.A. Alkema and E.A.A. Luijten.
61. Art. 198 (before the Act of 24 December 1997 came into force (see n. 31): Art. 221(1) first sentence), book 1, Dutch Civil Code (non-marital children); Marckx v. Belgium, Eur. Court H.R., 13 June 1979, Series A, Vol. 31.
62. Art. 197 (after the Act of 24 December 1997 came into force (see n. 31): Art. 199(a) and (b)), book 1, Dutch Civil Code (marriage to the mother); Art. 221(1) second sentence (after the Act of 24 December 1997 came into force (see n. 31): Art. 199(c)), book 1, Dutch Civil Code (recognition).
63. Dutch Supreme Court, 12 June 1987, NJ 1989 No. 98, note E.A. Alkema and E.A.A. Luijten.
64. Until the Act of 24 December 1997 came into force: Art. 224 (l)(d). See n. 31 above.
65. A comparable uncertainty about the purposes of the measure was present in S v. United Kingdom, Appl. 11716/85, D & R 47 p. 274 at p. 279, para. 7. (The question at issue was whether the Housing Act of 1980, which gave a right to certain people to succeed to a tenancy when the tenant died, was intended only to protect ‘family’ or, also, other ‘stable relationships’).
66. Stb. 1997, 772. In particular the following provisions: to extend the opportunities for the biological father to recognise a non-marital child against the will of the mother (Art. 204(3)); to create, for the first time, the opportunity for the mother and child to challenge the presumption of legitimacy regarding a child born during the marriage (Art. 200(l)(a) and (b)); to allow a married man, where the relationship between himself and the child falls under the protection of Art. 8 ECHR, to recognise a child born to a woman other than his wife (Art. 204(l)(e)); and to provide for judicial establishment, on the application of the mother or child, of the fact that a man is the father of the child (Art. 207).
67. Kortmann Commission to investigate making marriage available to partners of the same sex, The Hague, October 1997, pp. 5–6.
68. See Principle 7(2)(c) of the Council of Europe Committee of Ministers Recommendation No. R(84)4. adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 28 February 1984 at 367th meeting of Ministers' Deputies.
69. Eur. Court H.R., 27 October 1994, Series A, Vol. 297-C.
70. Ibid., para. 42.
71. Ibid., para. 36.
72. Appl. 8896/80 (X v. the Netherlands), D & R 24 p. 176 (10 March 1981); Appl. 9993/82, X v. France, D & R 31 p. 241 (5 October 1982).
73. Eur. Court H.R., 22 April 1997, Reports of Judgments and Decisions (1997-II) p. 619.
74. This proposition will be discussed in section 7.3 below.
75. X, Yand Z.v. United Kingdom, 22 April 1977, Reports of Judgments and Decisions (1991-II) p. 619, para. 56.
76. Ibid., paras. 44, 52 and 56.
77. Resolutionof 12 September 1989(0J 1989 C256, p. 33) and Recommendation 1117 adopted on 29 September 1989.
78. Act of 30 October 1997 to amend, inter alia, book 1, Dutch Civil Code in order to introduce shared custody for a parent and his or her partner and for shared guardianship, Stb. 1997, 506, inserting Arts. 253(t)-253(y), book 1, Dutch Civil Code.
79. Second Chamberof Parliament 1994–1995, Memorandum on Family Forms, 22 700, number 5, pp. 7–9 (7 September 1995); however in a later document the government suggests that international convention protection may be attracted (legislative bill to amend the law of descent and the regulation of adoption, Second Chamber of Parliament 1996–1997, 24 649, number 6, pp. 6–7).
80. Kortmann Commission to investigate making marriage available to partners of the same sex, The Hague, October 1997, pp. 9–10.
81. NRC Handelsblad 7 February 1998, p. 3.
82. Dutch Supreme Court, 5 September 1997, NJ 1998, forthcoming, note J. de Boer.
83. European Court of Justice, 26 February 1986, [1986] ECR 723.
84. NJ 1995 No. 326, note J. de Boer.
85. Ibid., consideration 3.2.
86. Dutch Supreme Court, 5 January 1996, 18 Tijdschrift voor familie- en jeugdrecht (1996) pp. 95–96. But the rule applies wherever the father denies paternity; The Hague Court of Appeal, 31 May 1996, 18 Tijdschrift voor familie- en jeugdrecht (1996) p. 182.
87. Art. 394, book 1, Dutch Civil Code; introduced by the Act of 24 December 1997 to amend the law of descent and the regulation of adoption, Stb. 1997, 772.
88. Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 61, 358.
89. Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 84, 168.
90. 24 March 1981, Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 56, 363 at pp. 384–390. The applicants contended that the father's parental rights under Art. 6(2) Basic Law had been violated, and that he was also the victim of sex discrimination contrary to Art. 3(2) Basic Law.
91. Appl. 9639/82, D & R 36 p. 130 at p. 139, para. 4.
92. Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 84, 168 (C.I.).
93. Ibid., (C.II.).
94. Ibid., (D.I.).
95. E.g., Celle Court of Appeal, 16 August 1996, 44 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1997) p. 635 (para. 1737(1) Civil Code at issue); Münster Regional Court, 30 May 1996, 44 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1997) p. 237 (para. 1705 Civil Code at issue).
96. E.g., Frankfurt Court of Appeal, 15 November 1996, 44 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1997) p. 637 (para. 1723 Civil Code at issue).
97. E.g., Bremen District Court, 10 December 1993, 41 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1994)p. 397; Lüneberg Regional Court, 1 November 1994, 42 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1995) p. 317; Gütersloh District Court, 9 December 1994, 42 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1995) p. 1077; Schwerte District Court, 19 September 1996, 44 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1997) p. 635 (in all cases para. 1705 Civil Code was at issue).
98. München District Court, 23 August 1996, 44 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1997) p. 237.
99. Kamen District Court, 13 April 1995, 42 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1995) p. 1077, note Häde, U. and Jachmann, M., 43 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1996) p. 632; Kamen District Court, 4 August 1995, 43 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (1996) p. 506.Google Scholar
100. See, generally, Salgo, L., ‘Unerlegdigte “Aufträge” des BVerfG an den Gesetzgeber auf dem Gebietdes Familienrechts’, 77 KritV (1994) pp. 262–279, especially p. 267;Google ScholarFrank, R., ‘Family Law and the Federal Republic of Germany's Basic Law’, 4 International Journal of Law and the Family (1990) pp. 214–234.Google Scholar
101. Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 25, 167 at pp. 185–188; Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 90, 263 (26 April 1994).
102. Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 25, 167 at p. 188.
103. Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 61, 358.
104. Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 84, 9 at pp. 23 et seq.
105. Salgo, loc. cit. n. 100, at p. 268.
106. Dutch Supreme Court, 21 March 1986, NJ 1986 No. 585, consideration 3.6.
107. Art. 251(2), book 1, Dutch Civil Code.
108. Art. 252, book 1, Dutch Civil Code.
109. Second Chamber 1992–1993, legislative bill 23 012, number 8, pp. 3–4; Second Chamber 17–931, 2 November 1994 (Ms Soutendijk-van Appeldoorn (CDA-fraction).
110. Dutch Supreme Court, 21 March 1986, NJ 1986 No. 585, advisory opinion Advocate-General paras. 6.2.3–6.2.4., p. 2201.
111. Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts 84, 168 at pp. 175–176.
112. D.H. Barber v. Guardian Royal Exchange Assurance Group, Appl. C–262/88, [1990] ECR 1–1889.
113. A.W. Heringa, Sociale Grondrechten [Social Civil Rights] (Zwolle, Tjeenk Willink 1989) p. 201; US Supreme Court, Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan, 458 US 718 (1982); Plyler v. Doe, 457 US 202 (1982); Califano v. Goldfarb, 430 US 199 (1977); United States Dept. of Agriculture v. Moreno, 413 US 528 (1973); Frontiero v. Richardson, 411 US 677 (1973); Graham v. Richardson, 403 US 365 (1971); Shapiro v. Thompson, 394 US 618 (1969); Jimenez v. Weinberger, 417 US 628 (1974); Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 US 535 (1942); Orr v. Orr, 440 US 268 (1979).
114. AGFA v. Schoolderman, Dutch Supreme Court, 8 April 1994, NJ 1994 No. 704.
115. Ibid., consideration 3.5.
116. Ibid., consideration 3.4.
117. Ibid., consideration 3.3.
118. Beukema and Van Veen, NJ 1989 No. 740.
119. Ibid., consideration 3, p. 2834.
120. Rechtspraak Nemesis (1996–5) case number 605.
121. Rechtspraak Nemesis (1996–5) case number 604.
122. Van Raalte v. the Netherlands, 21 February 1997, Reports of Judgments and Decisions (1997–1) p. 173, para. 24; Heringa, A.W. and Woltjer, A., ‘Gelijke behandeling in het sociale zekerheidsrecht: Straatsburg scherpt de eisen aan!’ [Equal treatment in social security rights: Strasbourg sharpens conditions!], 72 Nederlands Juristenblad (1997) p. 1710 at p. 1715.Google Scholar
123. The changes were brought about by the Act of 10 April 1997 to amend Arts. 5 and 9 of book 1, Dutch Civil Code and to make other consequential amendments in the Civil Code, Stb. 1997, 161.
124. NJ 1993 No. 286. This case is discussed in section 4.2.1 above.
125. Ibid., consideration 3.2.
126. NJ 1997 No. 483, note J. de Boer. In the ‘duo-mothers’ case the same reasoning is to be found, Dutch Supreme Court, 5 September 1997, NJ 1998, forthcoming, note J. de Boer.
127. Under an Act passed on 27 October 1982, Stb. 1982, 608.
128. See above, by n. 38, section 4.2.1.
129. 16 November 1990, NJ 1991 No. 475.
130. Eur. Court H.R., 27 October 1994, Series A, Vol. 297-C.
131. Strasbourg, 15 October 1975, ETS No. 85. ‘A child born out of wedlock shall have the same right of succession in the estate of its father and mother and of a member of its father's or mother's family, as if it had been born in wedlock.’
132. Marckx v. Belgium, 13 June 1979, Series A, Vol. 31, para. 41; Inze v. Austria, 28 October 1987, Series A, Vol. 126, para. 41.
133. Comm. 35/1978, decision of 9 April 1981, International Covenant on Civil and Political rights: Selected Decisions under the Optional Protocol, 2nd to 16th Sessions (New York, United Nations 1985), Vol. 1, p. 67.
134. Aumeeruddy-Cziffra case, para. 9.2(b)2(ii)2: violation of Arts. 2(1), 3 and 26, in conjunction with Art. 23 ICCPR.
135. Philis v. Greece, 27 August 1991, Series A, Vol. 209, para. 68.
136. Castells v. Spain, 23 April 1992, Series A, Vol. 236, para. 52.
137. Appl. No. 21830/93, adopted on 27 June 1995, Reports of Judgments and Decisions (1997-II) p. 654, paras. 67–70.
138. Ibid., para. 75.
139. See Heringa's objections to this practice, ‘Artikel 14 EVRM: Een Achtergestelde Waarborg?’ [Article 14 ECHR: a neglected guarantee?], NJCM-Bulletin, 45 jaar EVRM (Leiden, 1996) p. 219 at p. 220.
140. Dutch Supreme Court, 13 December 1996, consideration 3.3, Rechtspraak van de Week 1997 No. 1, p. 6.