Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T22:18:39.194Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Securing the nuclear nation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

Kate Brown
Kate Brown*
Affiliation:
History Department, University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC), 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD 21253, USA
*
*Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In 1946, in the Southern Urals, construction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics first plutonium plant fell to the GULAG-Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del (NKVD). The chief officers in charge of the program – Lavrentii Beria, Sergei Kruglov, and Ivan Tkachenko – had been pivotal figures in the deportation and political and ethnic cleansing of territories retaken from Axis forces during WWII. These men were charged with building a nuclear weapons complex to defend the Soviet Union from the American nuclear monopoly. In part thanks to the criminalization and deportation of ethnic minorities, Gulag territories grew crowded with foreign nationals and ethnic minorities in the postwar years. The NKVD generals were appalled to find that masses of forced laborers employed at the plutonium construction site were members of enemy nations. Beria issued orders to cleanse the ranks of foreign enemies, but construction managers could not spare a single healthy body as they raced to complete their deadlines. To solve this problem, they created two zones: an interior, affluent zone for plutonium workers made up almost exclusively of Russians; and anterior zones of prisoners, soldiers, ex-cons, and local farmers, many of whom were non-Russian. The selective quality of Soviet “nuclearity” meant that many people who were exposed to the plant's secret plutonium disasters were ethnic minorities, people whose exposures went unrecorded or under-recorded because of their invisibility and low social value.

Keywords

plutoniumnuclearPOWsfiltration campsnational minoritiesenvironmentcontaminationGulagBeria
Type
Articles
Information
Nationalities Papers , Volume 43 , Issue 1 , January 2015 , pp. 8 - 26
Copyright
Copyright © 2015 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Ob'edinennyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Cheliabinskoi Oblasti (OGAChO) Google Scholar
Collection numbers: 23, 107, R274, 288, P288, P1137, 1138, 1619, R1619, R1644, 2469 Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii (APRF) Collection number 3Google Scholar
Afanasev, Iurii N. ed. 2004. Istoriia stalinskogo Gulaga: konets 1920-kh-pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov: sobranie dokumentov v semi tomakh [History of the Stalin Gulag: End of the 1920s to the First Half of the 1950s, A Document Collection in Seven Volumes]. Volume 1. Moscow: ROSSPEN.Google Scholar
Akleyev, A. V., and Ploshchanskaya, O. G. 2000. “Incidence of Pregnancy and Labor Complications in Women Exposed to Chronic Radiation.” Paper presented at the 2nd International Symposium on Chronic Radiation Exposure, Cheliabinsk, March 14–16.Google Scholar
Bacon Hales, Peter. 1999. Atomic Spaces: Living on the Manhattan Project. Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Bairamova, Fauziia. 2005. ladernyi arkhipelag ili atomnyi genotsid protiv Tatar [Nuclear Archipelago or Atomic Genocide Against Tatars]. Kazan': Nauchno-populiarnoe izdanie. Batorshin, G. Sh., and Y. G. Mokrov. 2013. “Experience in Eliminating the Consequences of the 1957 Accident at the Mayak Production Association.” Conference proceedings of the International Experts’ Meeting on Decommissioning and Remediation after a Nuclear Accident, IAEA, Vienna, Austria, January 28-February 1.Google Scholar
Bell, Wilson T. 2013. “Was the Gulag an Archipelago? De-Convoyed Prisoners and Porous Borders in the Camps of Western Siberia.” Russian Review 72 (1): 116–141.Google Scholar
Brown, David. 2011. “Nuclear Power is Safest Way to Make Electricity.” Washington Post, April 2. Brown, Kate. 2004. A Biography of No Place: From Ethnic Borderland to Soviet Heartland. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Brown, Kate. 2013a. “Life in a Real Nuclear Wasteland.” Slate, April 18. http://www.slate.com/ articles/health_and_science/medical_examiner/2013/04/nuclear_contamination_in_former_uss r_radioactivity_in_muslomovo_on_techa.htmlGoogle Scholar
Brown, Kate. 2013b. Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Burds, Jeffrey. 2001. The Early Cold War in Soviet West Ukraine, 1944–1948. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Chernikov, V. 1995. Za zavesoi sekretnosti ili stroitel'stvo No. 859 [Beyond the Curtain of Secrey or Construction Site no 859]. Ozersk: V. Chernikov.Google Scholar
Chernikov, V. 2003. Osoboe pokolenie: Literaturnie portrety rabotnikov proizvodstvennogo ob'edineniia “Maiak” [The Special Generation: Literary Portraits of Workers of the Maiak Enterprise]. Vol. I and II. Cheliabinsk: V. Chernikov.Google Scholar
Degteva, M. O., Shagina, N. B., Vorobiova, M. I., Anspaugh, L. R., and Napier, B. A. 2012. “Reevaluation of Waterborne Releases of Radioactive Materials from the Mayak Production Association into the Techa River in 1949–1951.” Health Physics 102 (1): 25–38.Google Scholar
Dobrynina, Svetlana. 2004. “Contamination Haunts Forests.” Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press, September 22.Google Scholar
Dokuchaev, Ia. P. 1998. “Ot plutoniia k plutonievoi bombe: iz vospominanii uchastnikia sobytii [From Plutonium to Plutonium Bomb: From the Memories of Participants].” In Istoriia Sovetskogo atomnogo proekta: Dokumenty, vospominaniia, issledovaniia [History of the Soviet Atomic Project: Documents, Memories, Research], edited by V. P. Vizgin, 279–312. Moscow: Ianus-K.Google Scholar
Dorn Steele, Karen. 2003. “Judge Out of Hanford Case.” Spokesman Review, March 11.Google Scholar
Fedorov, A. H. 2005. “Frontoviki v partiinykh organakh Urala v 1945–1953 godakh.” In Ural v 1941-1945 godakh: Ekonomika i kul'tura voennogo vremeni [The Urals in 1941–1945: Ekonomics and Culture of the War Period], edited by Andrei A. Pass, 197–208. Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Filtzer, Donald. 2002. Soviet Workers and Late Stalinism: Labour and the Restoration of the Stalinist System after World War II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Finadeev, A. P. 2005. Togda byla voina, 1941–1945: Sbornik dokumentov i materialov [Then There was war, 1941–1945: Collection of Documents and Materials]. Cheliabinsk: S. N.Google Scholar
Findlay, John, and Hevly, Bruce. 2011. Atomic Frontier Days: Hanford and the American West. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Gelb, Michael. 1996. “The Western Finnic Minorities and the Origins of the Stalinist Nationalities Deportations.” Nationalities Papers 24 (2): 237–268.Google Scholar
Gephart, R. E. 2003. A Short History of Hanford Waste Generation, Storage, and Release, PNNL-13506 Rev. 4. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.Google Scholar
Greene, Jenna. 2011. “In Hanford Saga, No Resolution in Sight.” The National Law Journal, June 20. Gus'kova, Angelina. 2003. “Bolezn’ i lichnost’ bol'nogo.” Vrach 5: 57–58.Google Scholar
Hagenloh, Paul M. 2000. “Socially Harmful Elements: And the Terror.” In Stalinism: New Directions, edited by Fitzpatrick, Sheila, 286–307. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Harris, James. 1999. The Great Urals: Regionalism and the Evolution of the Soviet System. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Hecht, Gabrielle. 2012. Being Nuclear: Africans and the Global Uranium Trade. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Hessler, Peter. 2010. “The Uranium Widows.” New Yorker, September 13.Google Scholar
Institut global'nogo klimata i ekologii. 2005. Karta zagriazneniia pochv strontsiem-90 na preusadebnykh uchastkakhi v blizhaishikh okrestnostiakh pos. Tatarskaia Karabolka i Musakaevo [Map of Soils Contaminated with Strontium 90 on Garden Plots and Near Locations of Villages of Tatar Karabolka and Musakaevo]. Moscow: Moskovskoe otdeleniie Gidrometeoizdata.Google Scholar
Iwanow, Mikolaj. 1991. Pierwszy naród ukarany: stalinizm wobec polskiej ludnosci kresowej 1921-1938 [The First People Punished: Stalinism Against Poles of the Kresy, 1921–1938]. Warszawa: Agencja Omnipress.Google Scholar
Johnson, Charles, and Jackson, Charles. 1981. City Behind A Fence: Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1942-1946. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.Google Scholar
Johnston, Barbara Rose, ed. 2007. Half-Lives and Half-Truths: Confronting the Radioactive Legacies of the Cold War. Sante Fe, NM: School For Advanced Research Resident Scholar Book.Google Scholar
Karchenko, Natal'ia with Vladimir Novoselov. 2007. “Musliumovo sgubila ne radiatsiia, a alkogolizm” [Musliumovo Suffers not from Radiation, but Alchoholism]. MK-Ural, June 20–27.Google Scholar
Kazansky, Valery. 2007. “Mayak Nuclear Accident Remembered.” Moscow News, No.41, October 19.Google Scholar
Kessler, Gijs. 2001. “The Passport System and State Control Over Population Flows in the Soviet Union, 1932–1940.” Cahiers du monde russe 42 (2–4): 478–504.Google Scholar
Khakimov, Sh. 2006. Neizvestnaia deportatsiia [Unknown Deportation]. Cheliabinsk: Kniga.Google Scholar
Klevniuk, Oleg, ed. 2004. Istoriia Stalinskogo Gulaga: Ekonomika Gulaga [History of the Gulag: Economics of the Gulag] torn 3. Moscow: Rosspen.Google Scholar
Knight, Amy W. 1993. Beria, Stalin's First Lieutenant. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kokurin, A. I., and Petrov, N. V. 2000. Gulag, 1917–1960. Moscow: Demokratia.Google Scholar
Kossenko, D., Burmistrov, M., and Wilson, R. 2000. “Radioactive Contamination of the Techa River and Its Effects.” Technology 7 (31–32): 553–575.Google Scholar
Kuznetsov, Viktor N. 2004. Atomnyi proekt za koliuchei provolokoi [Atomic Project Beyond Barbed Wire]. Ekaterinburg: Poligrafist.Google Scholar
Kuznetsov, Viktor N. 2008. Zakrytye goroda Urala: istoricheskie ocherki [Closed Cities of the Urals: Historical Essays]. Ekaterinburg: Akademiia voenno-istoricheskikh nauk.Google Scholar
Larin, Vladislav. 2012. “Neizvestnyi radiatsionnye avarii na kombinate Maiak.” Accessed March 19. http://www.libozersk.ru/pbd/mayak/link/160.htm Google Scholar
Leskov, Sergei. 2010. “Baza avatarov na reke Techa” [Avatar Base on the River Techa], Izvestiia, April 15.Google Scholar
Livshin, lakov A., and Orlov, Igor B. 2003. Sovetskaia povsednevnost’ i massovoe soznanie 1939-1945 [Soviet Everyday and Mass Consciousness]. Moscow: Rosspen.Google Scholar
Louvat, Didier. 2006. “The Health Perspective,” Paper presented at the Commemoration of the Chernobyl Disaster: The Human Experience Twenty Years Later, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Martin, Terry. 1998. “The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing.” The Journal of Modern History 70 (4): 813–861.Google Scholar
Masco, Joseph. 2006. The Nuclear Borderlands: The Manhattan Project in Post-Cold War New Mexico. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Medvedev, Zhores. 1979. Nuclear Disaster in the Urals. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Medvedev, Zhores. 1990. “Do i posle tragedii” [Before and After the Tragedy]. Ural' 4: 111.Google Scholar
Medvedev, Zhores. 1995. “Krepostnyi spetzkontingenty krasnoi armii” [Enserfed Special Contingents of the Red Army], Ural' 5: 221–222.Google Scholar
Mel'nikova, N. V. 2006. Fenomen zakrytogo atomnogo goroda. [Phenomenon of Closed Atomic Cities]. Ekaterinburg: Bank kul'turnoi informatsii.Google Scholar
Mironenko, Sergei V., and Werth, Nicholas. 2004. Istoriia Stalinskogo Gulaga: Konets 1920-kh pervaia polovina 1950-Kh godov, massovie repressii v SSSR, torn 1 [History of the Stalin Gulag: End of the 1920s to the First Half of the 1950s, A Document Collection in Seven Volumes]. Moscow: Rosspen.Google Scholar
Mochulsky, Fyodor V., and Kaple, Deborah A. 2010. Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Novikov, Vladimir, Akleyev, Alexander, and Segerstahl, Boris. 1997. “The Long Shadow of Soviet Plutonium Production.” Environment, January 1.Google Scholar
Novoselov, V. N., and Tolstikov, V. S. 1995. Taina “Sorokovki” [Secrets of Number Forty]. Ekaterinburg: Ural'skii rabochii.Google Scholar
Popov, V. P. 1995. “Pasportnaia sistema v SSSR (1932–1976)” [Passport System in the USSR, 1932- 1976]. Sotsiologicheski issledovaniia, no. 8.Google Scholar
Potemkina, M. N. 2005. “Evakuatsiia kak psikhologicheskaia drama. [Evacuation as a Psychological Drama].” In Ural v 1941–1945 godakh: ekonomika i kul'tura voennogo vremeni, edited by Pass, Andrei A., 169–177. Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Proctor, Robert, and Schiebinger, Londa L. 2008. Agnotology: The Making and Unmaking of Ignorance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Riabev, L. D. ed. 2002. Atomnyi proekt SSSR [Atomic project of the USSR], Volume II, Book 3. Moskva: Nauka.Google Scholar
Riabev, L. D. ed. 2004. Atomnyi proekt SSSR [Atomic project of the USSR], Volume II, Book 4. Moscow: Fizmatlit.Google Scholar
Riabev, L. D. ed. 2007. Atomnyi proekt SSSR [Atomic project of the USSR], Volume II, Book 5. Moskva: Nauka.Google Scholar
Rubl'ov, Oleksandr, and Reprintsev, Volodimir. 1995. “Represii proti Poliakiv v Ukraini y 1930-ti roki, [Repression against Poles in Ukraine in the 1930s].” Z arkhiviv: VUChK GPU – NKVD – KGB 1 (2): 116–156.Google Scholar
Rush, David. 1995. “Russia Journal, July 1995.” Medicine and Global Survival 2 (3): 1–2.Google Scholar
Shearer, David. 2004. “Elements Near and Alien: Passportization, Policing, and Identity in the Stalinist State, 1932–1952.” Journal of Modern History 76 (4): 835–881.Google Scholar
Shevchenko, V. A. ed. 1998. Cytogenetic Study of the Residents of Muslumovo. Moscow, 203–215.Google Scholar
Shevyrin, Sergei A. 2005. “Proizvodstvennaia deiatel'nost’ gulaga v gody voiny: na primere Molotovskoi oblasti [Production Activity of the Gulag in the Years of War: Molotov Oblast as an Example].” In Ural v 1941–1945 godakh: ekonomika i kul'tura voennogo vremeni, edited by Pass, Andrei A., 88–95. Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Sokhina, L. P. 2003. Plutonii v devichikh rukakh: Dokumental'naia povest’ o robote khimiko-metal***lurgicheskogo plutonievogo tsekha v period ego stanovleniia, 1949–1950 gg [Plutonium in the Hands of Girls: Documentary Stories of Work in the Chemical-Metallurgical Plutonium Shop in the Period of its Establishment, 1949–1950]. Ekaterinburg: Litur.Google Scholar
Stykalin, A. S. 2005. “Deiatel'nost voennoi tsenzury NKGB SSSR, v 1941–45 godakh [Activity of Military Censorship of the NKGB USSR].” In Ural v 1941–1945 godakh: ekonomika i kul'tura voennogo vremeni [The Urals in 1941–45: Economics and Culture in Wartimes], edited by Andrei A. Pass, 96–108. Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Suslov, Andrei B. 2003. Spetskontingent v Permskoi oblasti (1929–1953 gg.) [Special Contingents in the Perm Oblast]. Ekaterinburg: Ural'skii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Timonin, Leonid. 2006. Pis'ma iz zony: Atomnyi vek v sud'bakh tol'iattintsev [Letters from the Zone: Atomic Century in the Fate of Togliatti]. Samara: Samarskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo.Google Scholar
Vazhnov, Mikhail. 2002. A.P. Zaveniagin: stranitsi zhizni [A. P. Zaveniagin: Pages from a life]. Moskva: PoliMedia.Google Scholar
Viola, Lynne. 2007. The Unknown Gulag: The Lost World of Stalin's Special Settlements. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Volkov, A. “Problema no. 1: Uchastie sotrudnikov spetsorganov v Sovetskom atomnom proekte, Nachal'nii period, 1945–1947” [Problem no. 1: Participation of Workers of the Special Organs in the Soviet Atomic Project, the Beginning Period, 1945–1947]. Istoriia otechestvennykh spetsluzhb. Accessed January 2011, http://shieldandsword.mozohin.ru/index.html Google Scholar
Ob'edinennyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Cheliabinskoi Oblasti (OGAChO) Google Scholar
Collection numbers: 23, 107, R274, 288, P288, P1137, 1138, 1619, R1619, R1644, 2469 Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii (APRF) Collection number 3Google Scholar
Afanasev, Iurii N. ed. 2004. Istoriia stalinskogo Gulaga: konets 1920-kh-pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov: sobranie dokumentov v semi tomakh [History of the Stalin Gulag: End of the 1920s to the First Half of the 1950s, A Document Collection in Seven Volumes]. Volume 1. Moscow: ROSSPEN.Google Scholar
Akleyev, A. V., and Ploshchanskaya, O. G. 2000. “Incidence of Pregnancy and Labor Complications in Women Exposed to Chronic Radiation.” Paper presented at the 2nd International Symposium on Chronic Radiation Exposure, Cheliabinsk, March 14–16.Google Scholar
Bacon Hales, Peter. 1999. Atomic Spaces: Living on the Manhattan Project. Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Bairamova, Fauziia. 2005. ladernyi arkhipelag ili atomnyi genotsid protiv Tatar [Nuclear Archipelago or Atomic Genocide Against Tatars]. Kazan': Nauchno-populiarnoe izdanie. Batorshin, G. Sh., and Y. G. Mokrov. 2013. “Experience in Eliminating the Consequences of the 1957 Accident at the Mayak Production Association.” Conference proceedings of the International Experts’ Meeting on Decommissioning and Remediation after a Nuclear Accident, IAEA, Vienna, Austria, January 28-February 1.Google Scholar
Bell, Wilson T. 2013. “Was the Gulag an Archipelago? De-Convoyed Prisoners and Porous Borders in the Camps of Western Siberia.” Russian Review 72 (1): 116–141.Google Scholar
Brown, David. 2011. “Nuclear Power is Safest Way to Make Electricity.” Washington Post, April 2. Brown, Kate. 2004. A Biography of No Place: From Ethnic Borderland to Soviet Heartland. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Brown, Kate. 2013a. “Life in a Real Nuclear Wasteland.” Slate, April 18. http://www.slate.com/ articles/health_and_science/medical_examiner/2013/04/nuclear_contamination_in_former_uss r_radioactivity_in_muslomovo_on_techa.htmlGoogle Scholar
Brown, Kate. 2013b. Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Burds, Jeffrey. 2001. The Early Cold War in Soviet West Ukraine, 1944–1948. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Chernikov, V. 1995. Za zavesoi sekretnosti ili stroitel'stvo No. 859 [Beyond the Curtain of Secrey or Construction Site no 859]. Ozersk: V. Chernikov.Google Scholar
Chernikov, V. 2003. Osoboe pokolenie: Literaturnie portrety rabotnikov proizvodstvennogo ob'edineniia “Maiak” [The Special Generation: Literary Portraits of Workers of the Maiak Enterprise]. Vol. I and II. Cheliabinsk: V. Chernikov.Google Scholar
Degteva, M. O., Shagina, N. B., Vorobiova, M. I., Anspaugh, L. R., and Napier, B. A. 2012. “Reevaluation of Waterborne Releases of Radioactive Materials from the Mayak Production Association into the Techa River in 1949–1951.” Health Physics 102 (1): 25–38.Google Scholar
Dobrynina, Svetlana. 2004. “Contamination Haunts Forests.” Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press, September 22.Google Scholar
Dokuchaev, Ia. P. 1998. “Ot plutoniia k plutonievoi bombe: iz vospominanii uchastnikia sobytii [From Plutonium to Plutonium Bomb: From the Memories of Participants].” In Istoriia Sovetskogo atomnogo proekta: Dokumenty, vospominaniia, issledovaniia [History of the Soviet Atomic Project: Documents, Memories, Research], edited by V. P. Vizgin, 279–312. Moscow: Ianus-K.Google Scholar
Dorn Steele, Karen. 2003. “Judge Out of Hanford Case.” Spokesman Review, March 11.Google Scholar
Fedorov, A. H. 2005. “Frontoviki v partiinykh organakh Urala v 1945–1953 godakh.” In Ural v 1941-1945 godakh: Ekonomika i kul'tura voennogo vremeni [The Urals in 1941–1945: Ekonomics and Culture of the War Period], edited by Andrei A. Pass, 197–208. Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Filtzer, Donald. 2002. Soviet Workers and Late Stalinism: Labour and the Restoration of the Stalinist System after World War II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Finadeev, A. P. 2005. Togda byla voina, 1941–1945: Sbornik dokumentov i materialov [Then There was war, 1941–1945: Collection of Documents and Materials]. Cheliabinsk: S. N.Google Scholar
Findlay, John, and Hevly, Bruce. 2011. Atomic Frontier Days: Hanford and the American West. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Gelb, Michael. 1996. “The Western Finnic Minorities and the Origins of the Stalinist Nationalities Deportations.” Nationalities Papers 24 (2): 237–268.Google Scholar
Gephart, R. E. 2003. A Short History of Hanford Waste Generation, Storage, and Release, PNNL-13506 Rev. 4. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.Google Scholar
Greene, Jenna. 2011. “In Hanford Saga, No Resolution in Sight.” The National Law Journal, June 20. Gus'kova, Angelina. 2003. “Bolezn’ i lichnost’ bol'nogo.” Vrach 5: 57–58.Google Scholar
Hagenloh, Paul M. 2000. “Socially Harmful Elements: And the Terror.” In Stalinism: New Directions, edited by Fitzpatrick, Sheila, 286–307. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Harris, James. 1999. The Great Urals: Regionalism and the Evolution of the Soviet System. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Hecht, Gabrielle. 2012. Being Nuclear: Africans and the Global Uranium Trade. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Hessler, Peter. 2010. “The Uranium Widows.” New Yorker, September 13.Google Scholar
Institut global'nogo klimata i ekologii. 2005. Karta zagriazneniia pochv strontsiem-90 na preusadebnykh uchastkakhi v blizhaishikh okrestnostiakh pos. Tatarskaia Karabolka i Musakaevo [Map of Soils Contaminated with Strontium 90 on Garden Plots and Near Locations of Villages of Tatar Karabolka and Musakaevo]. Moscow: Moskovskoe otdeleniie Gidrometeoizdata.Google Scholar
Iwanow, Mikolaj. 1991. Pierwszy naród ukarany: stalinizm wobec polskiej ludnosci kresowej 1921-1938 [The First People Punished: Stalinism Against Poles of the Kresy, 1921–1938]. Warszawa: Agencja Omnipress.Google Scholar
Johnson, Charles, and Jackson, Charles. 1981. City Behind A Fence: Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1942-1946. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.Google Scholar
Johnston, Barbara Rose, ed. 2007. Half-Lives and Half-Truths: Confronting the Radioactive Legacies of the Cold War. Sante Fe, NM: School For Advanced Research Resident Scholar Book.Google Scholar
Karchenko, Natal'ia with Vladimir Novoselov. 2007. “Musliumovo sgubila ne radiatsiia, a alkogolizm” [Musliumovo Suffers not from Radiation, but Alchoholism]. MK-Ural, June 20–27.Google Scholar
Kazansky, Valery. 2007. “Mayak Nuclear Accident Remembered.” Moscow News, No.41, October 19.Google Scholar
Kessler, Gijs. 2001. “The Passport System and State Control Over Population Flows in the Soviet Union, 1932–1940.” Cahiers du monde russe 42 (2–4): 478–504.Google Scholar
Khakimov, Sh. 2006. Neizvestnaia deportatsiia [Unknown Deportation]. Cheliabinsk: Kniga.Google Scholar
Klevniuk, Oleg, ed. 2004. Istoriia Stalinskogo Gulaga: Ekonomika Gulaga [History of the Gulag: Economics of the Gulag] torn 3. Moscow: Rosspen.Google Scholar
Knight, Amy W. 1993. Beria, Stalin's First Lieutenant. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kokurin, A. I., and Petrov, N. V. 2000. Gulag, 1917–1960. Moscow: Demokratia.Google Scholar
Kossenko, D., Burmistrov, M., and Wilson, R. 2000. “Radioactive Contamination of the Techa River and Its Effects.” Technology 7 (31–32): 553–575.Google Scholar
Kuznetsov, Viktor N. 2004. Atomnyi proekt za koliuchei provolokoi [Atomic Project Beyond Barbed Wire]. Ekaterinburg: Poligrafist.Google Scholar
Kuznetsov, Viktor N. 2008. Zakrytye goroda Urala: istoricheskie ocherki [Closed Cities of the Urals: Historical Essays]. Ekaterinburg: Akademiia voenno-istoricheskikh nauk.Google Scholar
Larin, Vladislav. 2012. “Neizvestnyi radiatsionnye avarii na kombinate Maiak.” Accessed March 19. http://www.libozersk.ru/pbd/mayak/link/160.htm Google Scholar
Leskov, Sergei. 2010. “Baza avatarov na reke Techa” [Avatar Base on the River Techa], Izvestiia, April 15.Google Scholar
Livshin, lakov A., and Orlov, Igor B. 2003. Sovetskaia povsednevnost’ i massovoe soznanie 1939-1945 [Soviet Everyday and Mass Consciousness]. Moscow: Rosspen.Google Scholar
Louvat, Didier. 2006. “The Health Perspective,” Paper presented at the Commemoration of the Chernobyl Disaster: The Human Experience Twenty Years Later, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Martin, Terry. 1998. “The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing.” The Journal of Modern History 70 (4): 813–861.Google Scholar
Masco, Joseph. 2006. The Nuclear Borderlands: The Manhattan Project in Post-Cold War New Mexico. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Medvedev, Zhores. 1979. Nuclear Disaster in the Urals. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Medvedev, Zhores. 1990. “Do i posle tragedii” [Before and After the Tragedy]. Ural' 4: 111.Google Scholar
Medvedev, Zhores. 1995. “Krepostnyi spetzkontingenty krasnoi armii” [Enserfed Special Contingents of the Red Army], Ural' 5: 221–222.Google Scholar
Mel'nikova, N. V. 2006. Fenomen zakrytogo atomnogo goroda. [Phenomenon of Closed Atomic Cities]. Ekaterinburg: Bank kul'turnoi informatsii.Google Scholar
Mironenko, Sergei V., and Werth, Nicholas. 2004. Istoriia Stalinskogo Gulaga: Konets 1920-kh pervaia polovina 1950-Kh godov, massovie repressii v SSSR, torn 1 [History of the Stalin Gulag: End of the 1920s to the First Half of the 1950s, A Document Collection in Seven Volumes]. Moscow: Rosspen.Google Scholar
Mochulsky, Fyodor V., and Kaple, Deborah A. 2010. Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Novikov, Vladimir, Akleyev, Alexander, and Segerstahl, Boris. 1997. “The Long Shadow of Soviet Plutonium Production.” Environment, January 1.Google Scholar
Novoselov, V. N., and Tolstikov, V. S. 1995. Taina “Sorokovki” [Secrets of Number Forty]. Ekaterinburg: Ural'skii rabochii.Google Scholar
Popov, V. P. 1995. “Pasportnaia sistema v SSSR (1932–1976)” [Passport System in the USSR, 1932- 1976]. Sotsiologicheski issledovaniia, no. 8.Google Scholar
Potemkina, M. N. 2005. “Evakuatsiia kak psikhologicheskaia drama. [Evacuation as a Psychological Drama].” In Ural v 1941–1945 godakh: ekonomika i kul'tura voennogo vremeni, edited by Pass, Andrei A., 169–177. Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Proctor, Robert, and Schiebinger, Londa L. 2008. Agnotology: The Making and Unmaking of Ignorance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Riabev, L. D. ed. 2002. Atomnyi proekt SSSR [Atomic project of the USSR], Volume II, Book 3. Moskva: Nauka.Google Scholar
Riabev, L. D. ed. 2004. Atomnyi proekt SSSR [Atomic project of the USSR], Volume II, Book 4. Moscow: Fizmatlit.Google Scholar
Riabev, L. D. ed. 2007. Atomnyi proekt SSSR [Atomic project of the USSR], Volume II, Book 5. Moskva: Nauka.Google Scholar
Rubl'ov, Oleksandr, and Reprintsev, Volodimir. 1995. “Represii proti Poliakiv v Ukraini y 1930-ti roki, [Repression against Poles in Ukraine in the 1930s].” Z arkhiviv: VUChK GPU – NKVD – KGB 1 (2): 116–156.Google Scholar
Rush, David. 1995. “Russia Journal, July 1995.” Medicine and Global Survival 2 (3): 1–2.Google Scholar
Shearer, David. 2004. “Elements Near and Alien: Passportization, Policing, and Identity in the Stalinist State, 1932–1952.” Journal of Modern History 76 (4): 835–881.Google Scholar
Shevchenko, V. A. ed. 1998. Cytogenetic Study of the Residents of Muslumovo. Moscow, 203–215.Google Scholar
Shevyrin, Sergei A. 2005. “Proizvodstvennaia deiatel'nost’ gulaga v gody voiny: na primere Molotovskoi oblasti [Production Activity of the Gulag in the Years of War: Molotov Oblast as an Example].” In Ural v 1941–1945 godakh: ekonomika i kul'tura voennogo vremeni, edited by Pass, Andrei A., 88–95. Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Sokhina, L. P. 2003. Plutonii v devichikh rukakh: Dokumental'naia povest’ o robote khimiko-metal***lurgicheskogo plutonievogo tsekha v period ego stanovleniia, 1949–1950 gg [Plutonium in the Hands of Girls: Documentary Stories of Work in the Chemical-Metallurgical Plutonium Shop in the Period of its Establishment, 1949–1950]. Ekaterinburg: Litur.Google Scholar
Stykalin, A. S. 2005. “Deiatel'nost voennoi tsenzury NKGB SSSR, v 1941–45 godakh [Activity of Military Censorship of the NKGB USSR].” In Ural v 1941–1945 godakh: ekonomika i kul'tura voennogo vremeni [The Urals in 1941–45: Economics and Culture in Wartimes], edited by Andrei A. Pass, 96–108. Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Suslov, Andrei B. 2003. Spetskontingent v Permskoi oblasti (1929–1953 gg.) [Special Contingents in the Perm Oblast]. Ekaterinburg: Ural'skii gosudarstvennyi universitet.Google Scholar
Timonin, Leonid. 2006. Pis'ma iz zony: Atomnyi vek v sud'bakh tol'iattintsev [Letters from the Zone: Atomic Century in the Fate of Togliatti]. Samara: Samarskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo.Google Scholar
Vazhnov, Mikhail. 2002. A.P. Zaveniagin: stranitsi zhizni [A. P. Zaveniagin: Pages from a life]. Moskva: PoliMedia.Google Scholar
Viola, Lynne. 2007. The Unknown Gulag: The Lost World of Stalin's Special Settlements. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Volkov, A. “Problema no. 1: Uchastie sotrudnikov spetsorganov v Sovetskom atomnom proekte, Nachal'nii period, 1945–1947” [Problem no. 1: Participation of Workers of the Special Organs in the Soviet Atomic Project, the Beginning Period, 1945–1947]. Istoriia otechestvennykh spetsluzhb. Accessed January 2011, http://shieldandsword.mozohin.ru/index.html Google Scholar