Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T17:39:34.992Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Representing minorities in the city. Education policies and minority incorporation in the capital cities of Estonia and Latvia†

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

Licia Cianetti
Licia Cianetti*
Affiliation:
University College London - School of Slavonic and East European Studies, London, UK
*
∗Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article explores the relationship between minority city-level and state-level political representations through the analysis of the contested implementation of state education policies in Tallinn and Riga. Referring to the US debate on this issue, the article asks what role minority incorporation into city-level power structures can play for its substantive representation. The comparison between Tallinn and Riga reveals two potential answers to this question. The case of Riga illustrates how city-level representation can be an alternative representative channel through which the minority can put pressure on state government and magnify its political voice within the country's democratic space. On the contrary, the case of Tallinn illustrates how a municipality can be an alternative locus of representation, which does not guarantee minority empowerment but rather entraps the minority at the local level within the implicit understanding that the minority (or at least the parties that get the minority vote) can “have its share” locally, but it cannot hope to influence state policies. The comparison between the two cases reveals different levels of legitimacy of the minority's voice in the democratic debate of Estonia and Latvia, and shows the risks and opportunities linked to the two models of minority city-level incorporation.

Keywords

minoritiesrepresentationurban politicsincorporationdemocracyBaltic States
Type
Articles
Information
Nationalities Papers , Volume 42 , Issue 6 , November 2014 , pp. 981 - 1001
Copyright
Copyright © 2014 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

An earlier version of this article was presented at the ASN World Convention at Columbia University, 24-26 April 2014. The author thanks all the panel participants for their precious comments and suggestions.

References

Agarin, Timofey. 2010. A Cat's Lick: Democratisation and Minority Communities in the Post-Soviet Baltics. Amsterdam: Rodopi.Google Scholar
Agarin, Timofey, and Brosig, Malte, eds. 2009. Minority Integration in Central Eastern Europe: Between Ethnic Diversity and Equality. Amsterdam: Rodopi.Google Scholar
Barrett, Susan, and Hill, Michael. 1984. “Policy, Bargaining and Structure in Implementation Theory: Towards an Integrated Perspective.” Policy & Politics 12 (3): 219–240.Google Scholar
Bird, Karen. 2004. “Obstacles to Ethnic Minority Representation in Local Government in Canada.” Our Diverse Cities 1 (Spring): 182–186.Google Scholar
Birnir, Johanna K. 2007. Ethnicity and Electoral Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bollens, Scott A. 2011. “Urban Governance in Divided Countries: Six Case Studies.” In “Urban Conflicts – Ethno-National Divisions, States and Cities” Conference, Queen's University Belfast, May 19–21. Belfast.Google Scholar
Browning, Rufus P., Rogers Marshall, Dale, and Tabb, David H., eds. 1990. Racial Politics in American Cities. New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Collier, David. 2011. “Understanding Process Tracing.” PS: Political Science & Politics 44 (4): 823–830.Google Scholar
Collier, David, Brady, Henry E., and Seawright, Jason. 2010. “Sources of Leverage in Causal Inference: Toward an Alternative View of Methodology.” In Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards, 2nd ed., edited by Brady, Henry E. and Collier, David, 161–200. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Commercio, Michele E. 2008. “Systems of Partial Control: Ethnic Dynamics in Post-Soviet Estonia and Latvia.” Studies in Comparative International Development 43 (1): 81–100.Google Scholar
Coulson, Andrew, and Campbell, Adrian. 2006. “Local Government in Central and Eastern Europe: Introduction.” Local Government Studies 32 (5): 539–541.Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert H. 1961. Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City. New York: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Davis, Diane E., and Libertun de Duren, Nora, eds. 2011. Cities and Sovereignty. Identity Politics in Urban Spaces. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Devas, Nick, and Delay, Simon. 2006. “Local Democracy and the Challenges of Decentralising the State: An International Perspective.” Local Government Studies 32 (5): 677–695.Google Scholar
Diamond, Larry, and Gunther, Richard. 2001. Political Parties and Democracy. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Dudzińska, Kinga. 2011. “Latvia: The Economic Crisis and (Im)possible Changes?” Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review 26: 84–99.Google Scholar
Galbreath, David J., and Elizabeth Galvin, Mary. 2005. “The Titularization of Latvian Secondary Schools: The Historical Legacy of Soviet Policy Implementation.” Journal of Baltic Studies 36 (4): 449–466.Google Scholar
Golubeva, Maria, ed. 2010. Inclusion Unaffordable? The Uncertain Fate of Integration Policies in Europe. Riga: Centre for Public Policy PROVIDUS.Google Scholar
Hall, Peter A. 2008. “Systematic Process Analysis: When and How to Use It.” European Political Science 7 (3): 304–317.Google Scholar
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle, Ozolins, Uldis, Ramonienė, Meilutė, and Rannut, Mart. 2008. “Language Politics and Practices in the Baltic States.” Current Issues in Language Planning 8 (4): 469–631.Google Scholar
Horak, Martin. 2007. Governing the Post-Communist City: Institutions and Democratic Development in Prague. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Horváth, Támas M., ed. 2000. Decentralization: Experiments and Reforms. Budapest: OSI/LGI.Google Scholar
Ishiyama, John. 2009. “Do Ethnic Parties Promote Minority Ethnic Conflict?” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 15 (1): 56–83.Google Scholar
Järve, Priit. 2000. “Ethnic Democracy and Estonia: Application of Smooha's Model.” European Center for Minority Issues Working Paper 7 (July).Google Scholar
J⊘rgensen, Martin Bak. 2012. “The Diverging Logics of Integration Policy Making at National and City Level.” International Migration Review 46 (1): 244–278.Google Scholar
Kello, Katrin, Masso, Anu, and Jakobson, Valeria. 2011. A Summary Report of the Research Project “Russian Child in Estonian General Education School.” Tartu: Centre for Educational Research and Curriculum Development, University of Tartu.Google Scholar
Kirtsi, Made, Klaas, Birute, Käosaar, Irene, Mere, Kristi, Lipasti, Järvi, and Pärn, Hele. 2008. Language Education Policy Profile - Country Report: Estonia. Tartu: Estonian Ministry of Education and Research.Google Scholar
Linz, Juan J., and Stepan, Alfred. 1996. Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Low, Murray. 2007. “Political Parties and the City: Some Thoughts on the Low Profile of Partisan Organisations and Mobilisation in Urban Political Theory.” Environment and Planning A 39 (11): 2652–2667.Google Scholar
Mäeltsemees, Sulev. 2000. “Local Government in Estonia.” In Decentralization: Experiments and Reforms - Local Governments in Central and Eastern Europe, edited by Horvat, Tamas, 61–114. Budapest: Local Governments and Public Service Reform Initiative.Google Scholar
Mäeltsemees, Sulev, and Lõhmus, Mikk. 2008. “Revenue Base of Estonian Local Governments, Regional Disparities, and Economic Problems in the Municipalities of the Capital City Area.” Discussions on Estonian Economic Policy XVI: 119–134.Google Scholar
Makarovs, Viktors, and Dimitrovs, Aleksejs. 2009. Latvija Nepilsoņi Un Balsstiesības: Kompromisi Un Risinījumi. [Latvia's Non-Citizens and Voting Rights: Compromises and Solutions.] Riga: EuroCivitas.Google Scholar
Marschall, Melissa J., and Ruhil, Anirudh V. S. 2007. “Substantive Symbols: The Attitudinal Dimension of Black Political Incorporation in Local Government.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (1): 17–33.Google Scholar
Miller, Byron, and Nicholls, Walter. 2013. “Social Movements in Urban Society: The City as a Space of Politicization.” Urban Geography 34 (4): 452–473.Google Scholar
Mole, Richard C. M. 2012. The Baltic States from the Soviet Union to the European Union: Identity, Discourse and Power in the Post-Communist Transition of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Parker, Simon. 2011. Cities, Politics and Power. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Pettai, Vello. 1998. “Emerging Ethnic Democracy in Estonia and Latvia.” In Managing Diversity in Plural Democracies: Minorities, Migration and Nation-Building in Postcommunist Europe, edited by Opalski, Magda, 15–32. Nepean: Forum Eastern Europe.Google Scholar
Pettai, Vello, and Hallik, Klara. 2002. “Understanding Processes of Ethnic Control: Segmentation, Dependency and Co-Optation in Post-Communist Estonia.” Nations and Nationalism 8 (4): 505–529.Google Scholar
Pitkin, Hanna. 1967. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Poleshchuk, Vadim, ed. 2009. Chance to Survive. Minority Rights in Estonia and Latvia. Tallinn: Foundation for Historical Outlook.Google Scholar
Rabushka, Alvin, and Shepsle, Kenneth A. 1972. Politics in Plural Societies: A Theory of Democratic Instability. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.Google Scholar
Rannut, Mart. 2004. “Language Policy in Estonia.” Noves SL. Revista de Sociolingüística I (Spring-Summer): 1–17.Google Scholar
Reilly, Benjamin. 2006. “Political Engineering and Party Politics in Conflict-Prone Societies.” Democratization 13 (5): 811–827.Google Scholar
Ritter, Nicole, Gardner, Andrew, and Druker, Jeremy. 2003. “Winning but Losing - Again.” Transitions Online 3 (4). http://www.ceeol.com Google Scholar
Rozenvalds, Juris, ed. 2005. How Democratic Is Latvia. Audit of Democracy. Riga: Latvijas Universitāte.Google Scholar
Silova, Iveta. 2002. “Bilingual Education Theater : Behind the Scenes of Latvian Minority Education Reform.” Intercultural Education 13 (4): 463–476.Google Scholar
Silova, Iveta. 2006. From Sites of Occupation to Symbols of Multiculturalism. Reconceptualizing Minority Education in Post-Soviet Latvia. Greenwich, CT: IAP, Information Age Pub.Google Scholar
Skerrett, Delaney Michael. 2013. “The 2011 Estonian High School Language Reform in the Context of Critical Language Policy and Planning.” Current Issues in Language Planning 15 (2): 174–200.Google Scholar
Smith, Michael P., and Feagin, Joe R., ed. 1995. The Bubbling Cauldron. Race, Ethnicity, and the Urban Crisis. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Smooha, Sammy, and Järve, Priit, ed. 2005. The Fate of Ethnic Democracy in Post-Communist Europe. Budapest: Open Society Institute.Google Scholar
Soós, Gábor, and Zentai, Violeta, ed. 2005. Faces of Local Democracy. Budapest: Open Society Institute.Google Scholar
Spence, L. K., McClerking, H. K. and Brown, R. 2009. “Revisiting Black Incorporation and Local Political Participation.” Urban Affairs Review 45 (2): 274–285.Google Scholar
Steinberg, Paul F. 2007. “Causal Assessment in Small-N Policy Studies.” Policy Studies Journal 35 (2): 181–204.Google Scholar
Stroschein, Sherrill. 2012. Ethnic Struggle, Coexistence, and Democratization in Eastern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Toots, Anu. 2006. “Local Elections 1993–2005.” Estonica. http://www.estonica.org/en/Society/Development_of_the_Estonian_political_landscape_until_2006/Local_elections_1993–2005/ Google Scholar
Van Cott, Donna Lee. 2005. From Movement to Parties in Latin America: The Evolution of Ethnic Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Vesperis, Vladislavs. 2011. “Analysis of Regional Socioeconomic Disparities in Latvia.” Baltic Surveying 11: 146–155.Google Scholar
Vihalemm, Peeter, Ainsaar, Mare, Heidmets, Mati, Vihalemm, Triin, Pettai, Vello, Terk, Erik, and Lauristin, Marju, ed. 2011. Estonian Human Development Report 2010/2011. Baltic Way(s) of Human Development: Twenty Years On. Tallinn: Eesti KoostööKogu.Google Scholar