Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T08:02:19.510Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

“Name the Republic that was joined to Russia in 2014:” Russia's New Civics and History Test for Migrants

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

Vanessa Ruget*
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science, Salem State University, Salem, MA, USA. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This article examines Russia's civics and history test, which has been mandatory, since January 2015, for millions of labor migrants applying for a work permit. An analysis of the test's content and of the context in which it was adopted provides a strong case to study how autocracies can use civics tests as instruments of control. Specifically, I argue that the test must be understood in light of Russia's state-sponsored nationalism, latent xenophobic sentiments, and its increasingly restrictive and incoherent migration policy. Not only are many questions irrelevant or disconnected from migrants' everyday concerns: their personal experiences of paying bribes, obtaining fake certificates, or being harassed by the police often contradict the correct answers on the exam. While it is doubtful that this test – along with several other new requirements imposed on migrants – will dissuade foreign laborers to seek employment in Russia, it is bound to make them even more vulnerable to bribes.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © 2017 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aron, Leon. 2014. “Novorossiya! Putin and His Dangerous ‘New Russia'.” Commentary, December 1. https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/novorossiya/.Google Scholar
Azattyk, Radio. 2016. Dokumenty dlia migrantov: bystro i nedorogo, chasto – nezakonno [Documents for Migrants: Quick, Inexpensive and Often Illegal]. Radio Azattyk (RFE/RL's Kyrgyzstan Service), May 10. http://rus.azattyk.org/a/27601778.html.Google Scholar
Balmforth, Tom. 2014. “Don't Shout, Don't Push. Eat Blini: Russian Orthodox Church's Manual for Migrants.” Eurasianet, December 11. http://www.rferl.org/content/russia-orthodox-church-textbook-migrants-how-to-behave/26737834.html.Google Scholar
Berman, Ilan. 2013. “Why Russia is Growing More Xenophobic.” The Atlantic, October 22. http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/10/why-russia-is-growing-more-xenophobic/280766/.Google Scholar
Calderone, Sarah. 2015. Adaptatsiia I integratsiia migrantov v Rossii: opyt migratsionnykh tsentov I organizatsii v Sverdlovskoi oblasti. Ekaterinburg: Ural Federal University.Google Scholar
Daly, John. 2014. “Russia's New Passport Regulations Impose Additional Hardships on Tajik Migrant Workers.” Eurasia Daily Monitor 11 (212). November 26. http://www.jamestown.org/programs/edm/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=43128&cHash=65a1c85f97ccce4a2bacf4c0786f478e#.V1glJbsrLIU.Google Scholar
Dave, Bhavna. 2014. “Becoming ‘Legal’ through ‘Illegal’ Procedures: The Precarious Status of Migrant Workers in Russia.” Russian Analytical Digest 159 (20). December 20. http://www.css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/RAD-159-2-8.pdf.Google Scholar
Demirjian, Karoun. 2015. “How Russia's Labor Migration Policy is Fueling the Islamic State.” The Washington Post, July 8. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/how-russias-labor-migration-policy-is-fueling-the-islamic-state/2015/07/08/15b9300e-1141-11e5-a0fedccfea4653ee_story.html.Google Scholar
Ersb⊘ll, Eva. 2010. “On Trial in Denmark.” In A Redefinition of Belonging? Language and Integration Tests in Europe, edited by Ricky van Oers, Eva Erb⊘ll, and Kostakopoulou, Dora, 105150. Leiden: Brill Publishers/Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Etzioni, Amitai. 2007. “Citizenship Tests: A Comparative, Communitarian Perspective.” The Political Quarterly 78 (3): 353363.Google Scholar
Fozdar, Farida, and Spittles, Brian. 2009. “The Australian Citizenship Test: Process and Rhetoric.” Australian Journal of Politics and History 55 (4): 496512.Google Scholar
Goodman, Sara Wallace. 2010. “Integration Requirements for Integration's Sake? Identifying, Categorizing, and Comparing Civic Integration Policies.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 36 (5): 753772.Google Scholar
Gray, Debra, and Griffin, Christine. 2014. “A Journey to Citizenship: Constructions of Citizenship and Identity in the British Citizenship Test.” British Journal of Social Psychology 53 (2): 299314.Google Scholar
Grigoryan, Marianna. 2015. “Armenia: Seeking Work in Russia by Hook or by Crook.” Eurasianet, March 31. http://www.eurasianet.org/node/72801.Google Scholar
Hansen, Randall. 2010. “Citizenship Tests: an Unapologetic Defense.” In How Liberal are Citizenship Tests?, edited by Bauböck, Rainer and Joppke, Christian, 2527. San Domenico di Fiesole: European University Institute.Google Scholar
Harnett, Sam. 2013. “Could You Pass the Test? International Citizenship Tests are Often More Interested in Cultural Quirks than National Knowledge.” Public Radio International, October 15. http://www.pri.org/stories/2013-10-15/could-you-pass-test-international-citizenship-tests-are-often-more-interested.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2008. “The Netherlands: Discrimination in the Name of Integration Migrants’ Rights under the Integration Abroad Act.” https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/netherlands0508.pdf.Google Scholar
Ibraimov, Bakyt. 2011. “Continuing Ethnic Tension Speeds Exodus from Kyrgyzstan.” Transitions Online, June 3. http://www.tol.org/client/article/22449-continuing-ethnic-tension-speeds-exodus-from-kyrgyzstan.html.Google Scholar
Ismailbekova, Aksana. 2013. “Coping Strategies: Public Avoidance, Migration, and Marriage in the Aftermath of the Osh Conflict, Fergana Valley.” Nationalities Papers 41 (1): 109127.Google Scholar
Janmaat, Jan Germen, and Piattoeva, Nelli. 2007. “Citizenship Education in Ukraine and Russia: Reconciling Nation-Building and Active Citizenship.” Comparative Education 43 (4): 527552.Google Scholar
Joppke, Christian. 2010. “How Liberal are Citizenship Tests?.” In How Liberal are Citizenship Tests?, edited by Bauböck, Rainer and Joppke, Christian, 14. San Domenico di Fiesole: European University Institute.Google Scholar
Justino, Patricia, and Shemyakina, Olga N. 2010. Remittances and Labor Supply in Post-Conflict Tajikistan. MICROCON Research Working Paper 35. https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Wp388.pdf.Google Scholar
Kalybekova, Asel. 2014. “Kyrgyzstan Ponders the Impact of Russia's Citizenship Law Amendments.” Eurasianet. April 25. http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68309.Google Scholar
Klekowski von Koppenfels, Amanda. 2010. “Citizenship Tests Could Signal that European States Perceive Themselves as Immigration Countries.” In How Liberal are Citizenship Tests?, edited by Bauböck, Rainer and Joppke, Christian, 1113. San Domenico di Fiesole: European University Institute.Google Scholar
Kruma, Kristine. 2010. “Latvian Integration Policy: Lost in Translation.” In A Redefinition of Belonging? Language and Integration Tests in Europe, edited by Ricky van Oers, Eva Erb⊘ll, and Kostakopoulou, Dora, 238266. The Hague: Brill Publishers/Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Laruelle, Marlene. 2007. “Central Asian Labor Migrants in Russia: The Diasporization of the Central Asian States?China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly 5 (3): 101–119. http://www.chinaeurasia.org/images/stories/isdp-cefq/CEFQ200708/calmrdcas200708101-119.pdf.Google Scholar
Laruelle, Marlene. 2012. “Negotiating History. Memory Wars in the Near Abroad and the Pro-Kremlin Youth Movements.” In Russian Nationalism, Foreign Policy, and Identity Debates in Putin's Russia. New Ideological Patterns after the Orange Revolution, edited by Laruelle, Marlene, 75102. Stuttgart: Ibidem Press.Google Scholar
Laruelle, Marlene. 2015. “Russia as a ‘Divided Nation,’ from Compatriots to Crimea: A Contribution to the Discussion on Nationalism and Foreign Policy.” Problems of Post-Communism 62 (2): 8897.Google Scholar
Lelik, Anna. 2015. “Kyrgyzstan's Migrants Wary on Russian Economy, but Excited by Closer Ties.” Eurasianet. January 7. http://www.eurasianet.org/node/71546.Google Scholar
Löweneim, Oded, and Gazit, Orit. 2009. “Power and Examination: A Critique of Citizenship Tests.” Security Dialogue 40 (2): 145167.Google Scholar
Malakhov, Vladimir S. 2014. “Russia as a New Immigration Country: Policy Response and Public Debate.” Europe-Asia Studies 66 (7): 10621079.Google Scholar
Mason, Andrew. 2014. “Citizenship Tests: Can They Be a Just Compromise?Journal of Social Philosophy 45 (2): 137161.Google Scholar
Michalowski, Ines. 2009. “Citizenship Tests in Five Countries. An Expression of Political Liberalism?” WZB Discussion Paper SP IV 2009–702. Berlin: WZB. http://mipex.eu/citizenship-tests-five-countries-expression-political-liberalism.Google Scholar
Migrantam razdadut spravochniki I razgovorsniki dlia sdachi eksamenov [Migrants will be provided with Guides and Phrasebooks for Exams]. 2015. Izvestiia. July 22. http://izvestia.ru/news/589004.Google Scholar
Myhre, Marthe. 2012. “Labour Migration from Central Asia to Russia. State Management of Migration.” Master's Thesis, University of Oslo.Google Scholar
Najibullah, Farangis, and Bobomatov, Ummid. 2014. “Russia to Test Migrant Workers on Country's History.” Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty, June 13. http://www.rferl.org/content/russia-migrants-history-tests/25420832.html.Google Scholar
Orgad, Liav. 2010. “Five Liberal Concerns about Citizenship Tests.” In How Liberal are Citizenship Tests?, edited by Bauböck, Rainer and Joppke, Christian, 2123. San Domenico di Fiesole: European University Institute.Google Scholar
Park, Julian. 2008. “A More Meaningful Citizenship Test? Unmasking the Construction of a Universalist, Principle-Based Citizenship Ideology.” California Law Review 96 (4): 9991047.Google Scholar
Perchining, Bernhard. 2010. “All You Need to Know to Become an Austrian: Naturalisation Policy and Citizenship Testing in Austria.” In A Redefinition of Belonging? Language and Integration Tests in Europe, edited by Ricky van Oers, Eva Erb⊘ll, and Kostakopoulou, Dora, 2550. Leiden: Brill Publishers/Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Rainer, Bauböck, and Joppke, Christian, eds. 2010. How Liberal Are Citizenship Tests? EUI Working Papers. San Domenico di Fiesole: European University Institute.Google Scholar
Rapoport, Anatoli. 2010. “The Role and Place of Patriotism in Citizenship Education in Russia.” Paper presented at the Education and Citizenship in a Globalizing World Conference, London, November 20.Google Scholar
Rice-Oxley, Mark. 2008. “U.K. Citizenship Test: Too Hard for Most Britons.” The Christian Science Monitor, January 31. http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2008/0131/p01s05-woeu.html.Google Scholar
“Russia: Attack on Migrant Puts Racism Back on Agenda.” 2016. Eurasianet, April 10. http://www.eurasianet.org/node/78236.Google Scholar
Rutland, Peter. 2010. “The Presence of Absence: Ethnicity Policy in Russia.” In Institutions, Ideas and Leadership in Post-Soviet Russia, edited by Newton, Julia and Tompson, William, 116136. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Schenk, Caress. 2012. “Nationalism in the Russian Media: Content Analysis of Newspaper Coverage Surrounding Conflict in Stavropol, 24 May-7 June 2007.” Nationalities Papers 40 (5): 783805.Google Scholar
Schenk, Caress. 2013. “Controlling Immigration Manually: Lessons from Moscow (Russia).” Europe-Asia Studies 65 (7): 14441465.Google Scholar
Schneidhofer, Eva-Maria. 2008. “Citizenship Tests as Instruments of Power: The Case of the Dutch Integration Exams.” Research Thesis, University of Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Stroganov, Alexéi. 2015. “New Language Exam Creates Extra Obstacle for Migrants in Russia.” Russia Beyond the Headlines, June 25. https://rbth.com/society/2015/06/25/new_language_exam_creates_extra_obstacle_for_migrants_in_russia_47243.html.Google Scholar
Testirovanie migrantov planiruiut uzhestochit [Plans to Tighten Migrant Testing]. 2016. Izvestiia, March 12. http://izvestia.ru/news/612614. F.Google Scholar
Tétrault-Farber, Gabrielle. 2014. “Russian Government Passes Entry Test for Foreign Workers.” The Moscow Times, August 11. http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/russian-government-passes-entry-test-for-foreign-workers/504911.html.Google Scholar
Tipaldou, Sofia, and Katrin, Uba. 2014. “The Russian Radical Right Movement and Immigration Policy: Do They Just Make Noise or Have an Impact as Well?Europe-Asia Studies 66 (7): 10801101.Google Scholar
Trilling, David. 2015a. “The Drop in Remittances from Russia is Bad. But How Bad?” Eurasianet, March 27. http://www.eurasianet.org/node/72751.Google Scholar
Trilling, David. 2015b. “Central Asians Leaving Russia: Flood or Trickle?” Eurasianet, February 9. http://www.eurasianet.org/node/71981.Google Scholar
Trilling, David, and Toktonaliev, Timur. 2014. “Central Asia Hurting as Russia's Ruble Sinks.” Eurasianet, October 21. http://www.eurasianet.org/node/70546.Google Scholar
Turner, Joseph. 2014. “Testing the Liberal Subject: (In)Security, Responsibility, and “Self-Improvement’ in the UK Citizenship Test.” Citizenship Studies 18 (3): 332348.Google Scholar
V Tadzhikistane dlia migrantov vyshel pervyi uchebnik po istoii Rossii [The First Textbook of Russia's History for Migrants is Published in Tajikistan]. 2015. Mir 24.tv, June 2. http://mir24.tv/news/society/12693231.Google Scholar
van Oers, Ricky. 2009. “Justifying Citizenship Tests in the Netherlands and the UK.” In Illiberal Liberal States: Immigration, Citizenship and Integration in the EU, edited by Elspeth Guild, Kees Groenendijk, and Carrera, Sergio, 113130. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Oers, van, Ricky, , Erb⊘ll, Eva, and Kostakopoulou, Dora. 2010. “Mapping the Redefinition of Belonging in Europe.” In A Redefinition of Belonging? Language and Integration Tests in Europe, edited by Ricky van Oers, Eva Erb⊘ll, and Kostakopoulou, Dora, 302326. Leiden: Brill Publishers/Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Verkhovsky, Alexander. 2007. “The Rise of Nationalism in Putin's Russia.” Helsinki Monitor 18 (2): 125137.Google Scholar
Vyacheslavovna, Kiseleva Ekaterina, and Olga Sergeevna, Kazhaeva. 2015. “Russia Introduces Integration Examination for Migrants: Some Legal Aspects.” Review of European Studies 7 (3): 1519.Google Scholar
Wright, Sue. 2008. “Citizenship Tests in Europe – Editorial Introduction.” International Journal on Multicultural Societies 10 (1): 1–9. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0016/001607/160772M.pdf.Google Scholar
Yudina, Natalia, and Alperovich, Vera. 2014. “The Ultra-right Shrugged: Xenophobia and Radical Nationalism in Russia, and Efforts to Counteract Them in 2013.” Sova Center for Information and Analysis. http://www.sova-center.ru/en/xenophobia/reports-analyses/2014/03/d29236/.Google Scholar