Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T18:48:49.341Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Ultrafast materials science and 4D imaging with atomic resolution both in space and time

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 February 2011

Alexander Ziegler*
Affiliation:
Max-Planck Institute for Biochemistry; [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Ultrafast science—the study of highly complex and extremely short-lived transient events—has become an area of significant interest in the materials sciences, physics, chemistry, and biology. This article focuses on the state-of-the-art instrumentation and a few of the available probes and techniques, and intends to give a brief overview of the possibilities and challenges for ultrafast materials sciences and for the instrumentation that is required. The pulsed laser-material interactions are briefly introduced, since they are the principal methods to access and trigger ultrafast processes in materials. The associated time and length scales and a few experimental possibilities in the materials sciences are discussed in the first part of this article. The second part deals with the two most applicable types of pulsed probes, x-rays and electrons, and the associated methods to interrogate ultrafast processes. Emphasis is on their differences, capabilities, and limitations.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Materials Research Society 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Spence, J., Nature 449, 553 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.Lobastov, V.A., Srinivasan, R., Zewail, A.H., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 102, 7069 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3.Neutze, R., Wouts, R., van der Speol, D., Weckert, E., Nature 406, 752 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4.Chapman, H.N., Hau-Riege, S.P., Bogan, M.J., Bajt, S.C., Barty, A., Boutet, S., Marchesini, S., Frank, M., Woods, B.W., Benner, W.H., London, R.A., Rohner, U., Szöke, A., Spiller, E., Möller, T., Bostedt, C., Shapiro, D.A., Kuhlmann, M., Treusch, R., Plönjes, E., Burmeister, F., Bergh, M., Caleman, C., Huldt, G., Seibert, M.M., Hajdu, J., Nature 448, 676 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5.Gaffney, K.J., Chapman, H.N., Science 316, 1444 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6.Barwick, B., Park, H.S., Kwon, O.-H., Baskin, J.S., Zewail, A.H., Science 322, 1227 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7.Hajdu, J., Neutze, R., Sjögren, T., Edman, K., Szöke, A., Wilmouth, R.C., Wilmot, C.M., Nat. Struct. Biol. 7, 1006 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8.Bostanjoglo, O., Weingartner, M., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 2456 (1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
9.Baum, P., Yang, D.S., Zewail, A.H., Science 318, 788 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
10.Ruan, C.Y., Lobastov, V.A., Vigliotti, F., Chen, S., Zewail, A.H., Science 304, 80 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11.Dömer, H., Bostanjoglo, O., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 74, 4369 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12.Cavalieri, A.L., Müller, N., Uphues, Th., Yakovlev, V.S., Baltus Caronka, A., Horvath, B., Schmidt, B., Blümel, L., Holzwarth, R., Hendel, S., Drescher, M., Kleineberg, U., Echenique, P.M., Kienberger, R., Krausz, F., Heinzmann, U., Nature 449, 1029 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Bostanjoglo, O., Heinricht, F., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 93, 105 (1988).Google Scholar
14.Carbone, F., Kwon, O.-H., Zewail, A.H., Science 325, 181 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15.Zewail, A.H., Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 363, 315 (2005).Google Scholar
16.Uiberacker, M., Uphues, Th., Schultze, M., Verhoef, A.J., Yakovlev, V., Kling, M.F., Rauschenberger, J., Kabachnik, N.M., Schröder, H., Lezius, M., Kompa, K.L., Muller, H.-G., Vrakking, M.J.J., Hendel, S., Kleineberg, U., Heinzmann, U., Drescher, M., Krausz, F., Nature 446, 627 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Bostanjoglo, O., Adv. Imaging Electron Phys. 121, 1 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18.Siwick, B.J., Dwyer, J.R., Jordan, R.E., Miller, R.J.D., Science 302, 1382 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19.Bostanjoglo, O., Elschner, R., Mao, Z., Nink, T., Weingartner, M., Ultramicroscopy 81, 141 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20.Bostanjoglo, O., Kornitzky, J., Tornow, R.P., J. Phys. E: Sci. Instrum. 22, 1008 (1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21.Balistreri, M.L.M., Gersen, H., Korterik, J.P., Kuipers, L., van Hulst, N.F., Science 294, 1080 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.Zewail, A.H., Acta Crystallogr., Sect. A: Found. Crystallogr. 66, 135 (2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23.Lobastov, V.A., Weissenrieder, J., Tang, J., Zewail, A.H., Nano Lett. 7, 2552 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24.Bostanjoglo, O., Tornow, R.P., Tornow, W., Ultramicroscopy 21, 367 (1987).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25.Srinivasan, R., Lobastov, V.A., Ruan, C.Y., Zewail, A.H., Helv. Chim. Acta 86, 1763 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26.Bostanjoglo, O., Heinricht, F., J. Phys. E: Sci. Instrum. 20, 1491 (1987).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27.Weber, P.M., Dudek, R.C., Ryu, S., Startt, R.M., in Femtochemistry and Femtobiology: Ultrafast Events in Molecular Science, Martin, M., Hynes, J.T., Eds. (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2004), pp. 1924.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28.Bostanjoglo, O., Kornitzky, J., Tornow, R.P., J. Appl. Phys. 69, 2581 (1991).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29.Yurtsever, A., Zewail, A.H., Science 326, 708 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30.Bostanjoglo, O., Tornow, R.P., Tornow, W., Scanning Microsc. 1, 197 (1987).Google Scholar
31.Siwick, B.J., Green, A.A., Hebeisen, C.T., Miller, R.J.D., Opt. Lett. 30, 1057 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32.Bostanjoglo, O., Tornow, R.P., Tornow, W., J. Phys. E: Sci. Instrum. 20, 556 (1987).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33.Cao, J., Hao, Z., Park, H., Tao, C., Kau, D., Blaszczyk, L., Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 1044 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Dömer, H., Bostanjoglo, O., Adv. Eng. Mater. 4, 623 (2002).3.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Bostanjoglo, O., Nink, T., J. Appl. Phys. 79, 8725 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36.Ischenko, A.A., Golubkov, V.V., Spiridonov, V.P., Zgurskii, A.V., Akhmanov, A.S., Vabischevich, M.G., Bagratashvili, V.N., Appl. Phys. B 32, 161 (1983).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.Bostanjoglo, O., Rosin, T., Opt. Acta 24, 657 (1977).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38.Becker, R.S., Higashi, G.S., Golovchenko, J.A., Phys. Rev. Lett. 52, 307 (1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39.LaGrange, T., Campbell, G.H., Turchi, P.E.A., King, W.E., Acta Mater. 55, 5211 (2007).Google Scholar
40.LaGrange, T., Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 044105 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41.Campbell, G.H., Microsc. Microanal. 12, 1428CD (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
42.Browning, N.D., Microsc. Microanal. 12, 790CD (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.LaGrange, T., Campbell, G.H., Colvin, J.D., Reed, B., King, W.E., J. Mater. Sci. 41, 4440 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44.Armstrong, M.R., Boyden, K., Browning, N.D., Campbell, G.H., Colvin, J.D., DeHope, W.J., Frank, A.M., Gibson, D.J., Hartemann, F., Kim, J.S., King, W.E., LaGrange, T.B., Pyke, B.J., Reed, B.W., Shuttlesworth, R.M., Stuart, B.C., Torralva, B.R., Ultramicroscopy 107, 356 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45.Bostanjoglo, O., Horinek, W.R., Optik 65, 361 (1983).Google Scholar
46.Lin, M.M., Shorokhov, D., Zewail, A.H., J. Phys. Chem. A 113, 4075 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47.Bostanjoglo, O., Schlotzhauer, G., Schade, S., Optik 61, 91 (1982).Google Scholar
48.Gahlmann, A., Park, S.T., Zewail, A.H., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 10, 2894 (2008).Google Scholar
49.Rood, A.P., Milledge, J., J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. II 80, 1145 (1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50.Bostanjoglo, O., Schlotzhauer, G., Phys. Status Solidi A 68, 555 (1981).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Park, H.S., Baskin, J.S., Kwon, O.-H., Zewail, A.H., Nano Lett. 7, 2546 (2007).Google Scholar
52.Bostanjoglo, O., Otte, D., Phys. Status Solidi A 150, 163 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53.Kleinschmidt, H., Ziegler, A., Campbell, G.H., Colvin, J.D., Bostanjoglo, O., J. Appl. Phys. 98, 054313 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
54.Bostanjoglo, O., Rosin, T., Mikroskopie 32, 190 (1976).Google Scholar
55.Siwick, B.J., Dwyer, J.R., Jordan, R.E., Miller, R.J.D., Chem. Phys. 299, 285 (2004).Google Scholar
56.Bostanjoglo, O., Phys. Status Solidi A 70, 473 (1982).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
57.Baum, P., Zewail, A.H., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 103, 16105 (2006).Google Scholar
58.Bostanjoglo, O., Hoffmann, G., Phys. Status Solidi A 73, 95 (1982).Google Scholar
59.Goulielmakis, E., Yakovlev, V.S., Cavalieri, A.L., Uiberacker, M., Pervak, V., Apolonski, A., Kienberger, R., Kleineberg, U., Krausz, F., Science 317, 769 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60.Bostanjoglo, O., Rosin, T., J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 1518, 1529 (1980).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61.Balandin, V.Y., Nink, T., Bostanjoglo, O., J. Appl. Phys. 84, 6355 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62.Bostanjoglo, O., Rosin, T., Phys. Status Solidi A 57, 561 (1980).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
63.Dömer, H., Bostanjoglo, O., Microsc. Microanal. 9, 358 (2003).Google Scholar
64.Bostanjoglo, O., Liedtke, R., Phys. Status Solidi A 60, 451 (1980).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65.Bostanjoglo, O., Nink, T., Appl. Surf. Sci. 110, 101 (1997).Google Scholar
66.Mourou, G., Williamson, S., Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 44 (1982).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67.Bostanjoglo, O., Rosin, T., Mikroskopie 36, 344 (1980).Google Scholar
68.Bostanjoglo, O., Gemund, H.P., Mikroskopie 34, 188 (1978).Google Scholar
69.Williamson, S., Mourou, G., Appl. Phys. B 28, 249 (1982).Google Scholar
70.Bostanjoglo, O., Endruschat, E., Phys. Status Solidi A 91, 17 (1985).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71.Balandin, V.Y., Otte, D., Bostanjoglo, O., J. Appl. Phys. 78, 2037 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72.Bostanjoglo, O., Endruschat, E., Heinricht, F., Tornow, R.P., Tornow, W., Eur. J. Cell Biol. 44, 10 (1987).Google Scholar
73.Dömer, H., Bostanjoglo, O., Appl. Surf. Sci. 208, 442 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74.Bostanjoglo, O., Nink, T., Appl. Surf. Sci. 109110, 101 (1996).Google Scholar
75.Bostanjoglo, O., Niedrig, R., Wedel, B., J. Appl. Phys. 76, 3045 (1994).Google Scholar
76.Nink, T., Galbert, F., Mao, Z.L., Bostanjoglo, O., Appl. Surf. Sci. 139, 439 (1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77.Balandin, V.Y., Gernet, U., Nink, T., Bostanjoglo, O., J. Appl. Phys. 81, 2835 (1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
78.Ivanov, D.S., Zhigilei, L.V., Phys. Rev. Lett. 91, 105701 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
79.Ivanov, D.S., Zhigilei, L.V., Phys. Rev. B 68, 064114 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80.Jin, Z.H., Gumbsch, P., Lu, K., Ma, E., Phys. Rev. Lett. 87, 055703 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
81.Luo, S.N., Ahrens, T.J., Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 1836 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82.Rethfeld, B., Sokolowski-Tinten, K., von der Linde, D., Phys. Rev. B 65, 092103 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
83.Rethfeld, B., Kaiser, A., Vicanek, M., Simon, G., Phys. Rev. B 65, 214303 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
84.Tanner, L.E., Wuttig, M., Mater. Sci. Eng., A 127, 137 (1990).Google Scholar
85.Kamino, T., Yaguchi, Y., Saka, H., J. Electron. Microsc. 43, 104 (1994).Google Scholar
86.Kamino, T., Yaguchi, T., Tomita, M., Saka, H., Philos. Mag. A 75, 105 (1997).Google Scholar
87.Gouchman, P.R., Jesser, W.A., Nature 269, 481 (1977).Google Scholar
88.Chang, J., Sakai, T., Saka, H., Philos. Mag. Lett. 85, 247 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
89.Saka, H., Sakai, A., Kamino, T., Imura, T., Philos. Mag. A 52, 67 (1985).Google Scholar
90.Senda, Y., Sasaki, K., Saka, H., Philos. Mag. 84, 2635 (2004).Google Scholar
91.Murai, J., Marukawa, T., Mima, T., Arai, S., Sasaki, K., Saka, H., J. Mater. Sci. 41, 2723 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
92.Bromwich, T.J., Kasama, T., Chong, R.K.K., Dunin-Borkowski, R.E., Petford-Long, A.K., Heinonen, O.G., Ross, C.A., Nanotechnology 17, 4367 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
93.Radisic, A., Vereecken, P.M., Searson, P.C., Ross, F.M., Surf. Sci. 600, 1817 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
94.Twitchett, A.C., Dunin-Borkowski, R.E., Midgley, P.A., Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 238302 (2002).Google Scholar
95.Ross, F.M., Hull, R., Bahnck, D., Bean, J.C., Peticolas, L.J., King, C.A., Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1426 (1993).Google Scholar
96.Gai, P.L., Smith, B.C., Nature 348, 430 (1990).Google Scholar
97.Gai, P.L., McCarron, E.M., Science 247, 553 (1990).Google Scholar
98.Gai, P.L., Smith, B.C., Ultramicroscopy 34, 17 (1990).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
99.Crozier, P.A., Sharma, R., Datye, A.K., Microsc. Microanal. 4, 278 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
100.Sayagues, M.J., Hutchison, J.L., J. Solid State Chem. 143, 33 (1999).Google Scholar
101.Sharma, R., Schweda, E., Naedele, D., Chem. Mater. 13, 4014 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
102.van Dorp, W., van Someren, R., Hagen, C., Kruit, P., Crozier, P.A., Nano Lett. 5, 1303 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
103.Sharma, R., McKelvy, M.J., Bearat, H., Chizmeshya, A.V.G., Carpenter, R.W., Philos. Mag. 84, 2711 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
104.McKelvy, M.J., Sharma, R., Chizmeshya, A.V.G., Carpenter, R.W., Streib, K., Chem. Mater. 13, 921 (2001).Google Scholar
105.Liu, R.-J., Crozier, P.A., Smith, C.M., Hucul, D.A., Blackson, J., Salaita, G., Appl. Catal., A 282, 111 (2005).Google Scholar
106.Gai, P.L., Kourtakis, K., Science 267, 661 (1995).Google Scholar
107.Her, T.H., Finlay, R.J., Wu, C., Deliwala, S., Mazur, E., Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1673 (1998).Google Scholar
108.Her, T.H., Finlay, R.J., Wu, C., Mazur, E., Appl. Phys. A 70, 383 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
109.Wu, C., Crouch, C.H., Zhao, L., Carey, J.E., Younkin, R., Levinson, J.A., Mazur, E., Farrell, R.M., Gothoskar, P., Karger, A., Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 1850 (2001).Google Scholar
110.Sanchez, F., Morenza, J.L., Aguiar, R., Delgado, J.C., Varela, M., Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 620 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111.Pedraza, A.J., Fowlkes, J.D., Lowndes, D.H., Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 3018 (2000).Google Scholar
112.Pedraza, A.J.. Fowlkes, J.D., Jesse, S., Mao, C., Lowndes, D.H., Appl. Surf. Sci. 168, 251 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
113.Pedraza, A.J., Fowlkes, J.D., Lowndes, D.H., Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 2322 (1999).Google Scholar
114.Younkin, R.J., Carey, J.E., Mazur, E., Levinson, J.A., Friend, C.M., J. Appl. Phys. 93, 2626 (2003).Google Scholar
115.Koopmans, B., Malinowski, G., Dalla Longa, F., Steiauf, D., Fähnle, M., Roth, T., Cinchetti, M., Aeschlimann, M.. Nat. Mater. 9, 259 (2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
116.Rethfeld, B., Krutsch, H., Hoffmann, D.H.H., Contrib. Plasma Phys. 50, 16 (2010).Google Scholar
117.Feuerer, T., Langhoff, H., Appl. Phys. A 63, 13 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
118.Nolte, S., Momma, C., Chichkov, B.N., Wellig, H., Phys. Blätter 55, 41 (1999).Google Scholar
119.Ashkenasi, D., Rosenfeld, A., Varel, H., Waehmer, M., Campbell, E.E.B., Appl. Surf. Sci. 120, 65 (1997).Google Scholar
120.Luk’Yanchuk, B., Bityurin, N., Anisimov, S., Baeuerle, D., Appl. Phys. A 57, 367 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
121.So, P.T.C., Kim, H., Kochevar, I.E., Opt. Exp. 3, 339 (1998).Google Scholar
122.Shen, N., Datta, D., Schaffer, C.B., LeDuc, P., Ingber, D.E., Mazur, E., Mech. Chem. Biosyst. 2, 17 (2005).Google Scholar
123.Heisterkamp, A., Maxwell, I.Z., Mazur, E., Underwood, J.M., Nickerson, J.A., Kumar, S., Ingber, D.E., Opt. Exp. 13, 3690 (2005).Google Scholar
124.Koenig, K., Riemann, I., Fischer, P., Halbhuber, K., Cell. Mol. Biol. 45, 192 (1995).Google Scholar
125.Tirlapur, U.K., Koenig, K., Nature 448, 290 (2002).Google Scholar
126.Watanabe, W., Arakawa, N., Matsunaga, S., Higashi, T., Fukui, K., Isobe, K., Itoh, K., Opt. Exp. 12, 4203 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
127.Vogel, A., Venugopalan, V., Chem. Rev. 103, 577 (2003).Google Scholar
128.Mourou, G.A., Tajima, T., Bulanov, S.V., Rev. Mod. Phys. 78, 309 (2006).Google Scholar
129.Anisimov, S.I., Kapeliovich, B.L., Perelman, T.L., Sov. Phys. JETP 39, 375 (1974).Google Scholar
130.Kaganov, M.I., Lifshitz, I.M., Tanatarov, L.V., Sov. Phys. JETP 4, 173 (1957).Google Scholar
131.Rethfeld, B., Kaiser, A., Vicanek, M., Simon, G., Proc. SPIE 3343, 388 (1998).Google Scholar
132.Martyniuk, M., Antoszewski, J., Musca, C.A., Dell, J.M., Faraone, L., Smart Mater. Struct. 15, S29 (2006).Google Scholar
133.Typke, D., Gilpin, C.J., Downing, K.H., Glaeser, R.M., Ultramicroscopy 107, 106 (2007).Google Scholar
134.Typke, D., Downing, K., Glaeser, R., Microsc. Microanal. 10, 21 (2004).Google Scholar
135.Henderson, R., Q. Rev. Biophys. 28, 171 (1995).Google Scholar
136.Hau-Riege, S.P., London, R.A., Bionta, R.M., Ryutov, D., Soufli, R., Bajt, S., McKernan, M.A., Baker, S.L., Krzywinski, J., Sobierajski, R., Nietubyc, R., Klinger, D., Pelka, J.B., Jurek, M., Juha, L., Chalupský, J., Cihelka, J., Hájková, V., Velyhan, A., Krása, J., Tiedtke, K., Toleikis, S., Wabnitz, H., Bergh, M., Caleman, C., Timneanu, N., Appl. Phys. Lett. 95, 111104 (2009).Google Scholar
137.Caleman, C., Ortiz, C., Marklund, E., Bultmark, F., Gabrysch, M., Parak, F.G., Hajdu, J., Klintenberg, M., Tîmneanu, N., Eur. Phys. Lett. 85, 18005 (2009).Google Scholar
138.Galtrey, M.J., Oliver, R.A., Kappers, M.J., Humphreys, C.J., Stokes, D.J., Clifton, P.H., Cerezo, A., Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 061903 (2007).Google Scholar
139.Kisielowski, C., Bartel, T., Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 176101 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
140.Martin, A.V., Ishizuka, K., Kisielowski, C., Allen, L.J., Phys. Rev. B 74, 172102 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
141.Miao, J.W., Charalambous, P., Kirz, J., Sayre, D., Nature 400, 342 (1999).Google Scholar
142.Fright, W.R., Bates, R.H.T., Optik 62, 219 (1982).Google Scholar
143.Garden, K.L., Bates, R.H.T., Optik 62, 131 (1982).Google Scholar
144.Bates, R.H.T., Optik 61, 247 (1982).Google Scholar
145.Hajdu, J., Maia, F.R.N.C., Nat. Phys. 4, 351 (2008).Google Scholar
146.van der Spoel, D., Maia, F.R.N.C., Caleman, C., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 10, 6344 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
147.Maia, F.R.N.C., Ekeberg, T., Tîmneanu, N., van der Spoel, D., Hajdu, J., Phys. Rev. E 80, 031905 (2009).Google Scholar
148.Jia, C.J., Lentzen, M., Urban, K., Science 299, 870 (2003).Google Scholar
149.Batson, P.E., Dellby, N., Krivanek, O.L., Nature 418, 617 (2002).Google Scholar
150.Haider, M., Uhlemann, S., Schwan, E., Rose, H., Kabius, B., Urban, K., Nature 392, 768 (1998).Google Scholar
151.Kabius, B., Haider, M., Uhlemann, S., Schwan, E., Urban, K., Rose, H., J. Electron Microsc. 51, S51 (2002).Google Scholar
152.Lentzen, M., Jahnen, B., Jia, C.L., Thust, A., Tillmann, K., Urban, K., Ultramicroscopy 92, 233 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
153.Zach, J., Haider, M., Optik 98, 112 (1995).Google Scholar
155.Singer, A., Vartanyants, I. A., Kuhlmann, M., Duesterer, S., Treusch, R., Feldhaus, J., Phys. Rev. Lett. 101, 254801 (2008).Google Scholar
156.Siwick, B.J., Dwyer, J.R., Jordan, R.E., Miller, R.J.D., J. Appl. Phys. 92, 1643 (2002).Google Scholar
157.van Oudheusden, T., de Jong, E.F., van der Geer, S.B., Op’t Root, W.P.E.M., Luiten, O.J., Siwick, B.J., J. Appl. Phys. 102, 093501 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
158.Baum, P., Zewail, A.H., Chem. Phys. Lett. 462, 14 (2008).Google Scholar
159.Zewail, A.H., Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 57, 65 (2006).Google Scholar