Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T19:42:40.376Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Observation of Defects in Crystalline Polymers by HREM

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 November 2013

David C. Martin  and
Edwin L. Thomas
Get access

Extract

The importance of crystalline defects in determining the macroscopic properties of metals, ceramics, and semiconductors is well known. Crystalline polymers also exhibit defect structures, but analyzing of defects in polymers is more difficult because the topological connectivity of the covalently bonded polymer chains means that solid polymers typically exhibit larger amounts and types of disorder than crystals of low molar mass molecules. Imaging is also more complex because of the inherent electron beam sensitivity of these typically organic materials. Recent developments in synthesis and processing have made it possible to achieve very highly ordered polymer systems. Defects in these materials will undoubtedly play a critical role in determining mechanical properties, optical behavior, and transport properties such as electrical conductivity.

Direct imaging techniques are particularly important for studying defects because the typically low volume fraction of defects in the crystalline phase makes diffraction experiments difficult if not impossible. Also, in diffraction information about the relative orientation of individual crystallites is lost. It is not surprising, then, that High Resolution Electron Microscopy (HREM) has become extremely important for studying defects in inorganic materials systems. HREM studies of polymers have been limited by the beam sensitivity of organic compounds. Recently, however, high voltage instruments, low dose techniques, and image processing procedures have made it possible to obtain lattice images in systems with beam sensitivities as low as 0.003 C/cm2 (2 e-/A2).

This review discusses the nature of defects in crystalline polymer systems and illustrates how proper application of high resolution imaging techniques promises to answer questions in polymer morphology.

Type
Polymers
Information
MRS Bulletin , Volume 12 , Issue 8 , December 1987 , pp. 27 - 35
Copyright
Copyright © Materials Research Society 1987

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

1.Chanzy, H., Folda, T., Smith, P., Gardner, K., and Revol, J.F., J. Mater. Sci. Lett. (1986) p. 1045–1047.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.Spence, John C.H., Experimental High Resolution Electron Microscopy (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1981).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3.Saxton, W.O., Computer Techniques for Image Processing in Electron Microscopy (Academic Press, New York, 1978).Google Scholar
4.Reimer, L., Transmission Electron Microscopy (Springer Series in Optical Sciences 46, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5.Thomas, E.L., Polymer 20 (1979) p. 1413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6.Thomas, E.L. and Roche, E.J., Polymer 22 (1981) P. 333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7.Tsuji, M. and Manley, R. St. John, J. Micros. 130 (1) (1983) p. 93–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8.Cowley, J.M. and Moodie, A.F., Acta Crystallographica 10 (1957) P. 609–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
9. Multislice programs are available as FORTRAN source code from the National Center for High Resolution Electron Microscopy at Arizona State University.Google Scholar
10.Adams, W. Wade, Wright Patterson Air Force Base (private communication).Google Scholar
11.Kuo, A.M. and Glaeser, R.M., Ultramicroscopy (1975) p. 53.Google Scholar
12.Fryer, J.R. and Smith, D.J., Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A 381 (1982) p. 225.Google Scholar
13.Reneker, D.H., J. Polymer Sci. 59 (1962) p. 539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14.Hirth, J.P. and Lothe, J., Theory of Dislocations, 2nd ed. (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982).Google Scholar
15.Keith, H.D. and Passaglia, E., J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand., Sec. A 68 (1964) p. 513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16.Thomas, E.L. and Wood, B.A., Nature 324 (1986) p. 655.Google Scholar
17.Reneker, D.H. and Mazur, J., Polymer 24 (11) (1983) p. 1387–1400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18.Young, R.J. and Petermann, J., Makromol. Chem. 182 (1981) p. 621–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19.Bollman, W., Crystal Defects and Crystalline Interfaces (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1970).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20.Pradere, P., Revol, J.F., and Manley, R. St. John, Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Electron Microscopy Society of America (San Francisco Press, Inc., San Francisco, CA, 1987).Google Scholar
21.Revol, J.F., J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 4 (1985) p. 1347–1349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.Kumar, S., Krause, S.J., and Adams, W.W.Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Electron Microscopy Society of America (San Francisco Press, Inc., San Francisco, CA, 1985) p. 84–85.Google Scholar
23.Pradere, P., Revol, J.F., and Manley, R. St. John, Proceedings of the Electron Microscopy Society of America (Baltimore, MD, August 1987).Google Scholar
24.Gull, S.F. and Skilling, J., IEEE Proceedings 131, Part F (6) (October 1984) p. 646–657.Google Scholar
25.Anderson, D.M., Martin, D.C., and Thomas, E.L., “Maximum Entropy Image Reconstruction Using Both Real and Fourier Space Analysis” (unpublished).Google Scholar
26.Zhou, Q.F. and Lenz, R.W., J. Polym. Sci., Poly. Chem. Ed. 21 (1983) p. 3313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27.Hudson, S. (unpublished results).Google Scholar
28.Gagnon, D.R., Karasz, F.E., Thomas, E.L., and Lenz, R.W., Synthetic Metals 20 (1987) p. 85–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29.Masse, M.A., Martin, D.C., Karasz, F.E., and Thomas, E.L., Proceedings of the ACS Division of Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering (American Chemical Society, 57, 1987) p. 441–445.Google Scholar
30.Downing, K., Proceedings of the Electron Microscopy Society of America, (Baltimore, MD, August 1987) p. 6–9.Google Scholar
31.Mori, N., Katoh, T., Oikawa, T., Miyahara, J., and Harada, Y., Proceedings of the XIth International Congress on Electron Microscopy (Kyoto, Japan, 1986) p. 29.Google Scholar
32.Hiraoka, Y., Sedat, J.W., Agard, D.A., Science 238 (1987) p. 36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33.Sinclair, R. and Parker, M.A., Nature 322 (6079) (1986) p. 531–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Binnig, G., Quate, C.F., Gerber, C.H., Phys. Rev. Lett. 56 (1986) p. 930.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spence, J.C.H., Experimental High Resolution Electron Microscopy (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1981).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saxton, W.O., Computer Techniques for Image Processing in Electron Microscopy (Academic Press, New York, 1978).Google Scholar
Reimer, L., Transmission Electron Microscopy (Springer-Verlag, 1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiemen, M., Points, Lines, and Walls (Wiley-Interscience, Chichester, UK, 1983).Google Scholar
Hirth, J.P. and Lothe, J., Theory of Dislocations, 2nd ed. (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982).Google Scholar
Cowley, J.M., Diffraction Physics (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1975).Google Scholar
Misell, D.L., “Image Analysis, Enhancement, and Interpretation,” in Practical Methods in Electron Microscopy Vol. 7 (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1978).Google Scholar
Beeston, B.E.P., Home, Robert W., and Markham, Roy, “Electron Diffraction and Optical Diffraction Techniques,” in Practical Methods in Electron Microscopy, Vol. 1, Part II (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1972).Google Scholar