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ZIONIST INTERNATIONALISM? ALFRED ZIMMERN’S POST-RACIAL COMMONWEALTH*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 January 2015

TOMOHITO BAJI
TOMOHITO BAJI*
Affiliation:
Department of Politics and International Studies, University of Cambridge E-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract

This essay analyses Alfred Zimmern's scheme for a global British Commonwealth. A prominent British liberal internationalist and leading early scholar of International Relations, Zimmern developed an anti-racial account of empire and international order. In conceptualizing a British Commonwealth, he sought to replace “race” with “nation” as the basic ontological category of world ordering. The idea of cultural Zionism, formulated by Ahad Ha’am, played a key role in Zimmern's attempt. Ahad Ha’am's account of non-statist Jewish nationalism served as a useful ideological device for Zimmern to theorize a multinational Commonwealth without acknowledging colonial demands for self-determination. The essay also shows that Horace Kallen's notion of American cultural pluralism helped Zimmern to consolidate his project for the post-racial empire.

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Modern Intellectual History , Volume 13 , Issue 3 , November 2016 , pp. 623 - 651
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

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Footnotes

*

My special thanks to Duncan Bell and three anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on earlier drafts of this article. I also thank participants in Graduate Conference Oxbridge Critical Exchanges (organized by Dana Mills and Or Rosenboim, June 2013) and Tohoku University Political Science Workshop (chaired by Hajime Inuzuka, July 2013).

References

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2 They were respectively the Woodrow Wilson Chair of International Politics and the Montague Burton Professorship of International Relations. For Zimmern's academic career see Rich, Paul, “Alfred Zimmern's Cautious Idealism: The League of Nations, International Education, and the Commonwealth,” in Long, David and Wilson, Peter, eds., Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis: Inter-war Idealism Reassessed (Oxford, 1995), 79–99, at 80–82Google Scholar.

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6 “Ahad Ha’am” was the Hebrew pseudonym of Ginsberg, meaning “one of the people.” I use this pseudonym through this essay as he was primarily known by it.

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10 The correspondence between Zimmern and Kallen is extensive. The bulk of this is held in the American Jewish Archives (hereafter AJA), Cincinnati, as well as at the Bodleian Library (hereafter BOL), Oxford. Horace Kallen Papers, AJA, MS-1, Box 32, Folder 20 (dated 1912–21); MS Zimmern, BOL, Facsimiles, c. 118, folios 2–32 (dated 1922–36).

11 Pianko, “Cosmopolitan Wanderer,” 236.

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20 Zimmern, “Nationality and Government” (1915), in Zimmern, Nationality and Government, 32–60, at 52 n. 1. The following texts are also keys to his concept of nationality. Zimmern, “German Culture,” in ibid., 1–31; Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism” (1915), in ibid., 61–86; Zimmern, “The Passing of Nationality” (1917), in ibid., 87–100; Zimmern, “Education, Social and National” (1914), in ibid., 101–26. See also , Zimmern, “Nationalism and Internationalism” (1923), in Zimmern, , The Prospects of Democracy and Other Essays (London, 1929), 76–94 Google Scholar.

21 Zimmern, “Nationalism and Internationalism,” 82. “Abusive writers in America” here seems to have denoted white supremacists Lothrop Stoddard and Edward East. Cf. Zimmern, The Third British Empire, 89.

22 In Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (1899), a deeply influential work on race, Chamberlain depicted the Jews as destructive to Aryan-centred Western civilization. Field, Geoffrey, Evangelist of Race: The Germanic Vision of Houston Stewart Chamberlain (New York, 1981), 169–224 Google Scholar. Zimmern read this work in early 1913, telling Kallen that he could not find any good in “that kind of romancing.” Letter from Zimmern to Kallen, 21 May 1913, Horace Kallen Papers, AJA, Box 32, Folder 20, folio 31. I expand on Zimmern's Jewish identity below.

23 Zimmern, “Nationality and Government,” 51.

24 Ibid., 52; Zimmern, “The Passing of Nationality,” 96; Zimmern, “Nationalism and Internationalism,” 84 (italics in original).

25 Zimmern, “Nationality and Government,” 54.

26 Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 78; Zimmern, “Education, Social and National,” 124.

27 Zimmern, “Nationality and Government,” 53.

28 Ibid., 46.

29 Ibid., 54; Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 77–8.

30 Zimmern, “Nationality and Government,” 52 (emphasis added).

31 Zimmern, “Nationalism and Internationalism,” 86.

32 Ibid., 86–7.

33 Trentmann, Frank, “After the Nation-State: Citizenship, Empire and Global Coordination in the New Internationalism, 1914–1930,” in Grant, Kevin et al., eds., Beyond Sovereignty: Britain, Empire and Transnationalism, c. 1880–1950 (New York, 2007), 34–53, at 45CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also, in addition to Morefield and Mazower, Rich, Paul, “Reinventing Peace: David Davies, Alfred Zimmern and Liberal Internationalism in Interwar Britain,” International Relations, 16/1 (2002), 117–33, at 121–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gettell, Raymond, “Review of Nationality and Government by A. E. Zimmern,” American Political Science Review, 13/2 (1919), 327–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Husserl, Gerhart, “The Political Community versus the Nation,” Ethics, 49/2 (1939), 127–47, at 143CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 Political theorist Ernest Barker was an exception. In his review of Nationality and Government, Barker argued that the nation for Zimmern was “a social fact,” belonging to “the sphere of education and literature.” This social entity was, in its essence, “a matter for the individual” regardless of which state he was affiliated with. Ernest Barker, “Nationality,” History, 4/15 (1919), 135–45, at 136–8.

35 Zimmern, “German Culture,” 20.

36 For Zimmern's criticism of Muir's Nationalism and Internationalism (1916), which he believed insisted on the dissolution of empires into discrete nation states, see Zimmern, “The Passing of Nationality,” 93–4. Cf. Muir, Ramsay, Nationalism and Internationalism: The Culmination of Modern History (London, 1916)Google Scholar.

37 Mill, J. S., Considerations on Representative Government (London, 1861), 291–2Google Scholar.

38 Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 64–5, at 72. See also Zimmern, “Nationality and Government,” 46; Zimmern, “Nationalism and Internationalism,” 89. Mill's arguments about national self-determination, though, were much more complicated. Varouxakis, Georgios, Mill on Nationality (London, 2002), 38–93 Google Scholar.

39 Acton, Lord, “Nationality,” Home and Foreign Review, 1 (1862), 1–25, at 23Google Scholar. Acton's argument formed an apologetic justification for imperial polities, including the Austrian monarchy and the British Empire. For more on this famous essay see Lang, Timothy, “Lord Acton and ‘the Insanity of Nationality’,” Journal of the History of Ideas, 63/1 (2002), 129–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 Zimmern, “German Culture,” 29. See also Zimmern, “Nationality and Government,” 47–8. One of those differences was over the relationship between nationality and political power. Acton stressed the need to devolve a certain level of political authority on each constituent nationality. Yet for Zimmern, nations and nationalities were completely separated from political power. Cf. Acton, “Nationality,” 15–17.

41 Zimmern, “German Culture,” 1.

42 Ibid., 3, 6, 17–18. Von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff was one of Zimmern's mentors on classical studies. Zimmern broke with this mentor by criticizing him as a Prussianist sophist. Calder, William, “Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff to Sir Alfred Zimmern on the Reality of Classical Athens,” Philologus, 133/2 (1989), 303–9Google Scholar.

43 Zimmern, “German Culture,” 20.

44 Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 71.

45 For this tendency see Gorman, Daniel, Imperial Citizenship: Empire and the Question of Belonging (Manchester, 2006), 50–51 Google Scholar.

46 Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 84 (emphasis added).

47 Markwell, D. J., “Zimmern, Sir Alfred Eckhard (1879–1957),” in Matthew, H. C. G. and Harrison, Brian, eds., Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 60 (Oxford, 2004), 993–5, at 993Google Scholar.

48 Adolph's funeral took place at an Anglican church in Surbiton (the Church of St Mark) in 1916. MS Zimmern, BOL, Box 15, folios 44–5.

49 Rich, “Alfred Zimmern's Cautious Idealism,” 80. A renowned bishop and one of Zimmern's close colleagues at the Workers’ Educational Association, Temple suspected Zimmern of being “doubtful about the Person of the Son, and still more . . . about the Person of the Father.” Letter from Temple to Zimmern, 11 May 1917, MS Zimmern, Box 15, folio 62. I could not find Zimmern's reply to this questioning.

50 At the Foreign Office, he wrote a guiding draft for a League of Nations just after World War I. Egerton, George, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations: Strategy, Politics, and International Organization, 1914–1919 (London, 1979), 99 Google Scholar.

51 Toynbee, Arnold, “Sir Alfred Zimmern,” in Acquaintances (London, 1967), 49–61, at 52Google Scholar.

52 Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 65–6.

53 Zionist Organisation (London Bureau), “Proceedings at Meeting, August 19th, 1919,” MS Zimmern, BOL, Facsimiles, c. 118, folio 195. These minutes were reprinted in German translation. Zimmern, , “Einige Eindrücke von Jüdisch-Palästina,” Der Jude, 4 (1919), 394–407 Google Scholar.

54 Zimmern and Sacher were undergraduate classmates at New College and Simon was a fellow at Balliol in the 1900s, when Zimmern remained at New College as a lecturer and tutorial fellow. Stapleton, Julia, “Alfred Zimmern and the World ‘Citizen-scholar’,” in Stapleton, , Political Intellectuals and Public Identities in Britain since 1850 (Manchester, 2001), 91–111, at 98Google Scholar.

55 MS Zimmern, BOL, Box 11, folio 95.

56 Zimmern, “Introduction,” in Simon, Leon, Studies in Jewish Nationalism (London, 1920), vii–ix, at viiiGoogle Scholar. The work Zimmern encountered at the congress was the German translation of Ahad Ha’am's collected essays Am Scheidewege (Berlin, 1904). Ahad Ha’am himself was absent from this congress.

57 Zimmern, “Theodor Herzl and the Jewish Renaissance,” The Outlook, 23 Sept. 1905, 395–6, at 395.

58 Ibid., 396. At the time Zimmern criticized the 1905 British Aliens Act as an anti-Semitic law and explored a way of eliminating a sense of discrimination against Jews, which he deemed widespread among the public. To his mind, attaining this demanded that Jews become “patriotic British citizens” while also standing “patriotic Jews” as adherents of Jewish culture. Ahad Ha’am's idea, presented in “Imitation and Assimilation,” appears to have offered him an inspiration for thinking out how these dual attachments could be achieved. Zimmern, , “The Alien's Act: A Challenge” (drafted 1905), Economic Review, 21/2 (1911), 187–97, at 195–6. I analyse “Imitation and Assimilation” belowGoogle Scholar.

59 For instance, he introduced Zimmern to Brandeis in 1912. Letter from Kallen to Brandeis, 18 April 1912, MS Zimmern, BOL, Box 13, folio 146. The correspondence between Kallen and Zimmern indicates that in the 1910s, Zimmern played a part in the liaison between Weizmann, on the one hand, and Kallen and other American Zionists on the other. Horace Kallen Papers, AJA, Box 32, Folder 20, passim.

60 Letter from Zimmern to Lippmann, 30 March 1917, MS Zimmern, BOL, Facsimiles, c. 118, folios 110–11.

61 According to Brandeis's letter to Zimmern in 1917, he read Zimmern's book during the winter of 1913–14. In this letter he also stated that alongside Gilbert Murray's The Bacchae of Euripides, “The Greek Commonwealth has given me more pleasure than any other book read within the last ten years.” Letter from Brandeis to Zimmern, 21 July 1917, MS Zimmern, Box 15, folios 73–4. I thank my colleagues Diane Barlee and Peter Walsh for their help in transcribing Brandeis's letter.

62 Strum, Philippa, Louis D. Brandeis: Justice for the People (Cambridge, MA, 1984), 237–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Cf. Zimmern, , The Greek Commonwealth: Politics and Economics in Fifth-Century Athens, part 2, Politics (Oxford, 1911), 53–204 Google Scholar.

63 Zionist Organisation, “Proceedings at Meeting, August 19th, 1919,” folio 189.

64 Ibid., folio 214.

65 Zimmern, “The Passing of Nationality,” 98. The Balfour Declaration stated, “His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.” Schneer, Jonathan, The Balfour Declaration: The Origins of the Arab–Israeli Conflict (London, 2010), 341 Google Scholar.

66 Zimmern, “The Passing of Nationality,” 98–9.

67 Ibid., 98; Zimmern, , “Nationality in the Modern World,” Menorah Journal, 4/3 (1918), 205–13, at 211–12Google Scholar. In fact, Ahad Ha’am was involved in the process for creating the draft declaration, although it is difficult to determine his influence on the final product. Schneer, The Balfour Declaration, 333–46.

68 Zipperstein, Steven, Elusive Prophet: Ahad Ha’am and the Origins of Zionism (London, 1993), 67–104 Google Scholar.

69 Kornberg, Jacques, “At the Crossroads: An Introductory Essay,” in Kornberg, , ed., At the Crossroads: Essays on Ahad Ha’am (Albany, NY, 1983), xv–xxvii Google Scholar; Shapira, Anita, “Herzl, Ahad Ha-‘Am, and Berdichevsky: Comments on Their Nationalist Concepts,” Jewish History, 4/2 (1990), 59–69 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70 Ahad Ha’am, “Imitation and Assimilation,” in Selected Essays by Ahad Ha’am, trans. Leon Simon (Philadelphia, 1912), 107–24.

71 Ibid., 113–14.

72 Ibid., 112, 115–16 (emphasis in original).

73 Ibid., 117.

74 Ibid., 118–19.

75 Zipperstein, Elusive Prophet, 80.

76 Ahad Ha’am, “Imitation and Assimilation,” 123.

77 Avineri, Shlomo, The Making of Modern Zionism: The Intellectual Origins of the Jewish State (London, 1981), 114, 117Google Scholar; Weinberg, David, Between Tradition and Modernity: Haim Zhitlowski, Simon Dubnow, Ahad Ha-Am, and the Shaping of Modern Jewish Identity (New York, 1996), 274–82Google Scholar.

78 Hebraism, Ahad Ha’am maintained, “needs at present but little.” “It needs not an independent State, but only the creation in its native land of conditions favourable to its development: a good-sized settlement of Jews working without hindrance in every branch of culture, from agriculture and handicrafts to science and literature.” Ha’am, Ahad, “The Jewish State and the Jewish Problem,” in Ahad Ha’am, Nationalism and the Jewish Ethic: Basic Writings of Ahad Ha’am, ed. Kohn, Hans (New York, 1962), 66–89, at 78–9Google Scholar. See also Kornberg, “At the Crossroads,” xxv.

79 Ahad Ha’am, “After the Balfour Declaration,” in Ahad Ha’am, Nationalism and the Jewish Ethic, 155–64, at 160. See also Avineri, The Making of Modern Zionism, 121–4.

80 Letter from Zimmern to Kallen, 12 April 1914, Horace Kallen Papers, AJA, Box 32, Folder 20, folios 47–52.

81 Ibid., folio 50.

82 Zimmern, “Introduction,” vii.

83 Zionist Organisation, “Proceedings at Meeting, August 19th, 1919,” folio 188. Landman was the chairperson.

84 Dawson, Nelson, Brandeis and America (Lexington, KY, 1989), 95–6Google Scholar.

85 Zionist Organisation, “Proceedings at Meeting, August 19th, 1919,” folios 209, 211, 215.

86 Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 84.

87 In the case of the non-Jewish peoples, he excluded the need to reinvigorate national cultures in their home countries.

88 Zimmern, “The Passing of Nationality,” 96–7. For a similar passage see Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 84.

89 Morefield, Covenants without Swords, 168–70.

90 Zimmern, “Nationality and Government,” 51; Zimmern, “Education, Social and National,” 118, 123–4.

91 Zimmern, “Nationalism and Internationalism,” 93.

92 Horace Kallen, “Democracy versus the Melting-Pot: Part I,” The Nation, 100/2590 (18 Feb. 1915), 190–94, at 194 (italics in original). I investigate this article further in the next section.

93 Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 79.

94 Kallen was born in Berenstadt, a town in the German province of Silesia (now in Poland). His father was an Orthodox rabbi from Latvia. Kallen's family emigrated to Boston, the United States, when he was a child. German and Yiddish, though, remained his first languages. Schmidt, Sarah, Horace M. Kallen: Prophet of American Zionism (Brooklyn, 1995), 20–1Google Scholar.

95 Zimmern partook in the Workers’ Educational Association in England during the 1900s and 1910s. Kallen continued to teach at the New School for Social Research in New York City, a school of advanced adult learning launched mainly by Progressive intellectuals, including Herbert Croly, from 1919 up to the early 1970s. Rich, “Reinventing Peace,” 119; Schmidt, Horace M. Kallen, 29–30.

96 Rodgers, Daniel, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA, 1998), 51 Google Scholar.

97 Kallen and Ahad Ha’am, though, had different views on Hebrew culture. Pianko, Zionism and the Roads Not Taken, 46–7.

98 Toll, William, “Horace M. Kallen: Pluralism and American Jewish Identity,” American Jewish History, 85/1 (1997), 57–74, at 60–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Kallen worked with James for his Ph.D. dissertation at Harvard. For James's philosophy see, for instance, Lamberth, David, William James and the Metaphysics of Experience (Cambridge, 2004)Google Scholar.

99 Meanwhile, Kallen is sometimes criticized for excluding African Americans from his pluralist view. Walzer, Michael, “Pluralism in Political Perspective,” in Walzer, et al., The Politics of Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA, 1982), 1–28, at 12–13Google Scholar; Kymlicka, Will, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford, 1995), 56Google Scholar.

100 Zangwill, Israel, From the Ghetto to the Melting Pot: Israel Zangwill's Jewish Plays, ed. Nahshon, Edna (Detroit, MI, 2006), 288 Google Scholar.

101 Steinberg, Stephan, “The Melting Pot and the Color Line,” in Jacoby, Tamar, ed., Reinventing the Melting Pot: The New Immigrants and What It Means to Be American (New York, 2004), 235–48Google Scholar. See also Kibria, Nazli et al., Race and Immigration (Cambridge, 2013)Google Scholar.

102 Kallen, “Democracy versus the Melting-Pot: Part I,” 193, 194. This essay was composed of two sections. The latter half was published in the same magazine a week later.

103 Kallen, , “Democracy versus the Melting-Pot: Part II,” The Nation, 100/2591 (25 Feb. 1915), 217–20, at 219Google Scholar.

104 Ibid. (emphasis added).

105 Ibid.

106 Ibid., 220.

107 Kallen, , Culture and Democracy in the United States (New York, 1970 Google Scholar; first published 1924), 11.

108 Kallen, , “Zionism and the Struggle towards Democracy,” The Nation, 101/2621 (23 Sept. 1915), 379–80, at 379Google Scholar. For more on this parallel see Greene, Daniel, The Jewish Origins of Cultural Pluralism: The Menorah Association and American Diversity (Bloomington, IN, 2011), 63–74 Google Scholar.

109 Letter from Zimmern to Kallen, 21 March 1912, Horace Kallen Papers, AJA, Box 32, Folder 20, folios 18–19.

110 Zimmern, “Seven Months in America,” Sociological Review, a5/3 (1912), 202–14, at 204, 209.

111 Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 78–9.

112 Ibid., 79, 81–3. The letters Zimmern sent to his family during the 1911–12 journey in the United States also demonstrate his aversion to racial discrimination against the “negroes” as well as the “yellows.” Towards the end of the journey, having witnessed racial abuses by white inhabitants in southern Texas, he indignantly wrote to his mother, “I hope nobody will ever call me their ‘white brother’ again.” Letter from Zimmern to his mother, 4 March 1912, MS Zimmern, BOL, Box 8, folio 254.

113 Letter from Zimmern to Kallen, 12 April 1914, Horace Kallen Papers, AJA, Box 32, Folder 20, folios 49–50.

114 Zimmern, “Education, Social and National,” 123.

115 For Curtis's scheme of an imperial federation see Gorman, Imperial Citizenship, 40–76.

116 Zimmern, “The Passing of Nationality,” 96 (italics in original).

117 Ibid.

118 Ibid., 95.

119 Zimmern, “The Future of American Civilization,” The Nation and the Athenaeum, 17 May 1924, contained in MS Zimmern, BOL, Box 177, folio 199.

120 Pianko, “Cosmopolitan Wanderer,” 236. For the rich diversity of early twentieth-century Zionism and its subsequent loss see also Stanislawski, Michael, Zionism and the Fin de Siècle: Cosmopolitanism and Nationalism from Nordau to Jabotinsky (Berkeley, CA, 2001)Google Scholar.

121 Pianko, “Cosmopolitan Wanderer,” 237–8.

122 This work underwent three editions until 1934 with little change in its substance.

123 See for instance Darwin, John, Unfinished Empire: The Global Expansion of Britain (London, 2012), 2, 403Google Scholar. See also Miller, J. D. B., “The Commonwealth and World Order: The Zimmern Vision and After,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 8/1 (1979), 159–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

124 Zimmern, The Third British Empire, 85.

125 Ibid., 82. He approved the Japanese proposal for the insertion of a racial equality clause in the League Covenant. Ibid., 81, 91–2. See also Zimmern, , The British Commonwealth in the Post-war World (London, 1926), 30 Google Scholar.

126 Zimmern, The Third British Empire, 138–40. His view of the Rhodes Scholarships was not ungrounded considering Cecil Rhodes's founding idea behind it. See Ziegler, Philip, Legacy: Cecil Rhodes, the Rhodes Trust and Rhodes Scholarships (New Haven, 2008), 8–18 Google Scholar.

127 Zimmern, The Third British Empire, 135, 139.

128 Ibid., 82–3.

129 Ibid., 67, 84.

130 Ibid., 140, 142–3.

131 Ibid., 138. See also ibid., 76, for his endorsement of Frederick Lugard's The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (Edinburgh, 1922), which justified British colonial rule in sub-Saharan Africa.

132 Hobson, John M., The Eurocentric Conception of World Politics: Western International Theory, 1760–2010 (Cambridge, 2012), 33–58, 150–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

133 Iriye, Akira, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore, MD, 1997), 65–6Google Scholar.

134 Zimmern held this position from 1926 to 1930. For the role he played in the creation of UNESCO after World War II, see Toye, John and Toye, Richard, “One World, Two Cultures? Alfred Zimmern, Julian Huxley and the Ideological Origins of UNESCO,” History, 95/319 (2010), 308–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

135 Zimmern, Learning and Leadership, 10–11, 20, 30. See also Zimmern, , “The Development of the International Mind,” in The Problems of Peace: Lectures Delivered at the Geneva Institute of International Relations, August 1926 (London, 1927), 1–17 Google Scholar.

136 Zimmern, , “Education for World Citizenship,” in Problems of Peace: Fifth Series. Lectures Delivered at the Geneva Institute of International Relations, August 1930 (New York, 1931), 304–19, at 304–8Google Scholar.

137 Zimmern, Learning and Leadership, 30. For his usage of these two terms, see also Zimmern, “Nationality and Government,” 53; Zimmern, “True and False Nationalism,” 75; Zimmern, “The Passing of Nationality,” 99.

138 “Discours de cloture du président,” Minutes of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, 5 Aug. 1922, reproduced in Henri Bergson, Mélanges (Paris, 1972), 1351. Bergson served as the inaugural chair of the League Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. For more on this League project see Laqua, Daniel, “Transnational Intellectual Cooperation, the League of Nations, and the Problem of Order,” Journal of Global History, 6/2 (2011), 223–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

139 Long, David, “Who Killed the International Studies Conference?”, Review of International Studies, 32/4 (2006), 603–22, at 604–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ceadel, Martin, “The Academic Normalization of IR at Oxford, 1920–2012: Structures Transcended”, in Hood, Christopher et al., eds., Forging a Discipline (Oxford, 2014), 184–203, at 184–92Google Scholar.