Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T12:54:00.591Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sacrificing Local Interests: Water control policies of the Ming and Qing governments and the local economy of Huaibei, 1495–1949*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 March 2013

MA JUNYA  and
TIM WRIGHT
MA JUNYA
Affiliation:
Centre for the History of Republican China, Nanjing University, China Email: [email protected]
TIM WRIGHT
Affiliation:
School of East Asian Studies, University of Sheffield, UK Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

From the end of the fifteenth century, the Ming state redirected the entire flow of the Yellow River into the course of the Huai River in order the facilitate the transport of tribute grain. This shifted the major problems of water control from the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River to the Huaibei region. Huaibei was viewed as ‘a local interest’, as opposed to the ‘general interests’ represented by the central government, and was sacrificed for those general interests. These policies, which were continued under the Qing dynasty, created widespread and frequent flooding in the region, causing short-term famine and destruction and leading to long-term economic decline.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 47 , Issue 4 , July 2013 , pp. 1348 - 1376
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

The project on which this paper is based has benefited from financial support from the programmes of New Century Talent (ncet-10-0458) from the Ministry of Education of China and Important Programme of the Department of Education of Jiangsu Province (2011zdixm014).

References

1 Elvin, Mark, The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2004, p. 115.Google Scholar

2 Christopher Hill, V., South Asia: An Environmental History, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, California, 2008, p. 224.Google Scholar

3 D'Souza, Rohan, ‘Water in British India: The making of a “colonial hydrology”’, History Compass, vol. 4, no. 4, 2006, pp. 621–628CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Singh, Praveen, ‘The colonial state, zamindars and the politics of flood control in north Bihar (1850–1945)’, The Indian Social and Economic History Review, vol. 45, no. 2, 2008, pp. 239–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4 August Wittfogel, Karl, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Chinas: Versuch der Wissenschaftlichen Analyse einer Grossen Asiatischen Agrargesellschaft, C. L. Hirschfeld, Leipzig, 1931.Google Scholar

5 Ch'ao-ting, Chi, Key Economic Areas in Chinese History as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water Control, reprint, Paragon Book Reprint Corp, New York, 1963, pp. 1–2.Google Scholar

6 August Wittfogel, Karl, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1957.Google Scholar

7 Allen Pietz, David, Engineering the State: The Huai River and Reconstruction in Nationalist China, 1927–1937, Routledge, New York, 2002, p. xv.Google Scholar

8 Hu, Ch'ang-tu, ‘The Yellow River Administration in the Ch'ing dynasty’, The Far Eastern Quarterly, Special Number on Chinese History and Society, vol. 14, no. 4, 1955, p. 505CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Perdue, Peter C., Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan, 1500–1850, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10 Elvin, Retreat of the Elephants, pp. 130–131.

11 ‘Huaibei’ includes Huaian, Xuzhou, Fengyang, and Yingzhou prefectures as well as Haizhou and Sizhou subprefectures (excluding Tianzhang), and the counties in Yanzhou prefecture that adjoin Xuzhou. It covers the counties of Shanyang (Huaian), Funing, Yancheng, Qinghe (Huaiyin), Andong (Lianshui), Taoyuan (Siyang), Pizhou (Pi), Dangshan, Feng, Pei, Tongshan, Xiao, Suqian, Suining, Ganyu, Shuyang, Donghai, Guanyun, Shouzhou, Suzhou, Fengyang, Huaiyuan, Dingyuan, Fengtai, Lingbi, Bozhou, Fuyang, Yingshang, Huoqiu, Guoyang, Taihe, Mengcheng, Xuyi, Wuhe, Hong, Shan, Jining, Yi, and Teng. As shown in the map in Figure 1, much of the region can be further divided into two major sub-regions—Wanbei (or northern Anhui) and Subei (or northern Jiangsu).

12 Perry, Elizabeth J., Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845–1945, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1980, pp. 10–47.Google Scholar

13 Will, Pierre-Étienne, Bureaucratie et Famine en Chine au 18e Siècle, Mouton, Paris, 1980.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14 Earlier changes in the course of the Yellow River between 1048 and 1128 reflected Song dynasty military priorities and involved the sacrifice of the people of Hebei (see Zhang, Ling, ‘Changing with the Yellow River: An environmental history of Hebei, 1048–1128’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 69, no. 1, 2002, p. 36Google Scholar; and Lamouroux, Christian, ‘From the Yellow River to the Huai: New representations of a river network and the hydraulic crisis of 1128’, in Elvin, Mark and Ts'ui-jung, Liu (eds), Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004, pp. 545–584Google Scholar). The Ming and Qing states were much more actively involved in intentionally determining and changing the courses of several major rivers than had been the case in the Song.

15 Pomeranz, Kenneth, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853–1937, California University Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1993, pp. 273–276.Google Scholar

16 Honig, Emily, Creating Chinese Ethnicity: Subei People in Shanghai, 1850–1980, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1992, pp. 29–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

17 Chi, Key Economic Areas, pp. 105–107. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries, p. 11.

18 Lamouroux, ‘From the Yellow River to the Huai’, pp. 545–546.

19 Wu Tongju 武 同 举, ‘Jiangsu Huaibei shuidao bianqianshi’ 江 苏 淮 北 水 道 变 迁 史 (History of changes in waterways in Huaibei, Jiangsu), in Tongju, Wu, Liangxuan shengyu 两 轩 賸 语 (Superfluous comments from Liangxuan), Nanjing, 1927, p. 5Google Scholar.

20 Yiyan, Liu 刘 乙 燃 (ed.), Liu Zhongxuan gong wenji 刘 忠 宣 公 文 集 (Collected works of Liu Daxia), woodcut edition, 1874, 1: 8a–bGoogle Scholar.

21 Changling, He 贺 长 龄 (ed.), Huangchao jingshi wenbian 皇 朝 经 世 文 编 (Collected essays on statecraft in the Qing dynasty), Guangbaisong zhai, Shanghai, 1887, 46: 1aGoogle Scholar; Dodgen, Randall A., Controlling the Dragon: Confucian Engineers and the Yellow River in Late Imperial China, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 2001, p. 21.Google Scholar

22 We translate ‘zhou’ as ‘subprefecture’ for both the Ming and Qing, following Hucker, Charles O., ‘Governmental organization of the Ming dynasty’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 21, 1958, p. 44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

23 Ruilan, Fang 方 瑞 兰, Anhui Si-Hong he zhi 安 徽 泗 虹 合 志 (Joint gazetteer of Si and Hong counties, Anhui Province), woodcut edition, 1887, 2: 32bGoogle Scholar.

24 Guosheng, Zhu 朱 国 盛, Nanhe zhi 南 河 志 (Gazetteer of the South [Huai] River), manuscript, 1625, 4: 17bGoogle Scholar.

25 Zaijin, Wang 王 在 晋, Tong cao lei bian 通 漕 类 编 (Categorized collection on the transport of tribute grain), woodcut edition, 1614, 5: 38aGoogle Scholar.

26 Zehong, Fu 傅 泽 洪, Xingshui jinjian 行 水 金 鉴 (Golden reference for water regulation), Shangwu yinshuguan, Shanghai, 1936, vol. 9, p. 940Google Scholar.

27 Zhu, Nanhe zhi, 4: 14b; He, Huangchao jingshi wenbian, 104: 29a.

28 Leonard, Jane Kate, ‘“Controlling from afar”: Open communications and the Tao-Kuang emperor's control of Grand Canal-grain transport management, 1824–1826’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 22, no. 4, 1988, p. 669.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

29 Wang, Tong cao lei bian, Preface, 1b–2a.

30 Huang Renyu 黄 仁 宇 (Ray Huang), Mingdai de caoyun 明 代 的 漕 运 (The Grand Canal during the Ming dynasty, 1368–1644), PhD thesis, 1964; Chinese edition, Xinxing chubanshe, Beijing, 2005, pp. 15–16.

31 Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan lishi yanjiusuo Mingshi yanjiu shi 中 国 社 会 科 学 院 历 史 研 究 所 明 史 研 究 室 (ed.), ‘Limadou riji xuanlu’ 利 玛 窦 日 记 选 录 (Selections from the diary of Matteo Ricci), in Mingshi ziliao congkan 明 史 资 料 丛 刊 (Historical materials on the Ming), vol. 2, 1982, p. 170.

32 Gong, Wan 万 恭, Zhishui quanti 治 水 筌 蹄 (Means and purposes of water control), Shuili chubanshe, Beijing, 1985, p. 15Google Scholar.

33 Wan, Zhishui quanti, p. 28.

34 Wan, Zhishui quanti, p. 37.

35 Zhu Hong 朱 鋐, Hecao beikao 河 漕 备 考 (Reference materials on the transport of tribute grain), manuscript, 1725, juan 3.

36 Wu Tongju, ‘Tanshui bichen’ 谈 水 笔 尘 (Talking of water and writing of dust), in Liangxuan shengyu, p. 31.

37 Zhu, Hecao beikao, juan 3.

38 Vermeer, Eduard B., ‘P'an Chi-hsun's solutions for the Yellow River problems of the late 16th century’, T'oung Pao, vol. 70, nos. 1–3, 1987, pp. 33–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

39 Zhu, Hecao beikao, juan 3.

40 Zhu, Hecao beikao, juan 3.

41 Jixun, Pan 潘 季 驯, Hefang yilan 河 防 一 览 (A view of river security), Zhongguo shuili gongcheng xuehui, Nanjing, 1936, p. 209Google Scholar.

42 Zhaojing, Zheng 郑 肇 经, Zhongguo shuili shi 中 国 水 利 史 (A history of Chinese water conservancy), Shangwu yinshuguan, Shanghai, 1939, p. 59Google Scholar; Yi, Shen 沈 怡, Huanghe wenti taolun ji 黄 河 问 题 讨 论 集 (Essays on the issues of the Yellow River), Shangwu yinshuguan, Taibei, 1971, p. 383Google Scholar.

43 Jiongxin, Xu, ‘A study on long term environmental effects of river regulation on the Yellow River of China from a historical perspective’, Geografiska Annaler, Series A, Physical Geography, vol. 75, no. 3, 1993, pp. 68, 71.Google Scholar

44 Fu, Xingshui jinjian, book 17, p. 1854.

45 Penghe, Zhang 张 鹏 翮, Zhihe quanshu 治 河 全 书 (Complete account of water regulation), hand-copied book, 1703Google Scholar, juan 1.

46 Baixing, Zhang 张 伯 行, Zhengyitang wenji 正 谊 堂 文 集 (Collected works from Zhengyitang), Shangwu yinshuguan, Shanghai, 1936, 4: 41Google Scholar.

47 Qi, Ma 马 齐 (ed.), Da Qing Shengzu Ren huangdi shilu 大 清 圣 祖 仁 皇 帝 实 录 (Veritable records of the Kangxi Emperor), [1741], reprint Daizo Shuppansha, Tokyo, n.d., 82: 2aGoogle Scholar.

48 Zhongmian, Tang 唐 仲 冕, Jiaqing Haizhou zhilizhou zhi 嘉 庆 海 州 直 隶 州 志 (Gazetteer of Haizhou Subprefecture), woodcut edition, 1811, 12: 2b–3aGoogle Scholar.

49 Tongju, Wu (ed.), Zaixu xingshui jinjian, Huaihe juan 再 续 行 水 金 鉴 (淮 河 卷) (Added supplement to the golden reference of water regulation: the Huai River), Hubei renmin chubanshe, Wuhan, 2004, p. 499Google Scholar.

50 Fu, Xingshui jinjian, book 17, p. 1939.

51 Ma, Da Qing Shengzu Ren huangdi shilu, 80: 24b.

52 Yifeng, Zhang 张 义 丰, Huaihe dili yanjiu 淮 河 地 理 研 究 (Research on the geography of the Huai River), Cehui chubanshe, Beijing, 1993, p. 176Google Scholar.

53 Xu, ‘A study on long term environmental effects’, p. 68.

54 kexueyuan, ZhongguoZhongguo ziran dili bianji weiyuanhui 中 国 科 学 院 《 中 国 自 然 地 理 》 编 辑 委 员 会 (ed.), Zhongguo ziran dili, zonglun 中 国 自 然 地 理(总 论) (Physical geography of China: overview), Kexue chubanshe, Beijing, 1985, p. 224Google Scholar.

55 Lan, Ye 叶 兰, ‘Sizhou zhi’ 泗 州 志 (Gazetteer of Sizhou), in Zhongguo difangzhi jicheng 中 国 地 方 志 集 成 (Collection of Chinese local gazetteers), Jiangsu guji chubanshe, Nanjing, 1998, vol. 30, p. 299Google Scholar; Junya, Ma 马 俊 亚, ‘Jituan liyi yu guoyun shuaibian’ 集 团 利 益 与 国 运 衰 变 (Group interests and the decline of the state), Nanjing daxue xuebao 南 京 大 学 学 报 (Journal of Nanjing University), no. 2, 2008, pp. 114–126Google Scholar.

56 Xian, Ding 丁 显, Fu Huai gudao tushuo 复 淮 故 道 图 说 (Illustrations of the restoration of the old course of the Huai River), Zhongguo shuili gongcheng xuehui, Nanjing, 1936, p. 2Google Scholar.

57 Qi, Zhu 朱 偰, Zhongguo yunhe shiliao xuanji 中 国 运 河 史 料 选 辑 (Selected historical materials on the Grand Canal), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 1962, p. 142Google Scholar.

58 Leonard, ‘“Controlling from afar”’, pp. 670–671.

59 Wu, Zaixu xingshui jinjian, Huaihe juan, pp. 126–127.

60 Wu, Zaixu xingshui jinjian, Huaihe juan, p.128.

61 Maojian, Cao 曹 楙 坚, Tanyunge ji 昙 云 阁 集 (Collection from the Tanyun pavilion), Mantuoluo guan, 1887, 4: 28aGoogle Scholar.

62 Wu, Zaixu xingshui jinjian, Huaihe juan, p. 102.

63 Fu, Jin 靳 辅, Zhihe fanglue 治 河 方 略 (Strategies of river regulation), Zhongguo gongcheng xuehui, Nanjing, 1937, p. 216Google Scholar.

64 Finnane, Antonia, Speaking of Yangzhou: A Chinese City, 1550–1850, Harvard University Asia Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2004, pp. 153–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

65 Tongju, Wu (ed.), Jiangsu shuili quanshu 江 苏 水 利 全 书 (Complete account of water conservancy in Jiangsu), Shuili shiyanchu, Nanjing, 1950, book 2, 5: 1–2Google Scholar.

66 Zhang, Huaihe dili yanjiu, p. 176.

67 Fu, Jin, ‘Zhihe zou xushu’ 治 河 奏 续 书 (Supplementary book of memorials regarding river regulation), in Qinding siku quanshu 钦 定 四 库 全 书 (Complete library of the four branches of literature), Shangwu yinshuguan, Taibei, 1986, Shibu, no. 11, book 579, 4: 39aGoogle Scholar.

68 Fu, Jin, ‘Wenxiang zoushu’ 文 襄 奏 疏 (Memorials of Jin Fu), in Qinding siku quanshu, Shibu, no. 6, book 430, 6: 1b–2aGoogle Scholar.

69 He, Huangchao jingshi wenbian, 104: 42a–b.

70 weiyuanhui, Jiningshi zhengxie wenshi ziliao 济 宁 市 政 协 文 史 资 料 委 员 会 (ed.), Weishanhu: Weishanhu ziliao zhuanji 微 山 湖 ： 微 山 湖 资 料 专 辑 (Weishan Lake: Special collection of materials on Weishan Lake), Jiningshi zhengxie wenshi ziliao weiyuanhui, Jining, 1990, p. 7Google Scholar.

71 Baixing, Zhang, Juji yide 居 济 一 得 (One advantage of living in Jining), Shangwu yinshuguan, Shanghai, 1936, 1: 7Google Scholar.

72 Yuan, Wei 魏 源, Wei Yuan ji 魏 源 集 (Collected works of Wei Yuan), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 1976, book 1, p. 408Google Scholar.

73 Yanwu, Gu 顾 炎 武, Tianxia junguo libing shu 天 下 郡 国 利 病 书 (Advantages and disadvantages of the various regions in China), Tushu jicheng ju, Shanghai, 1901, 26: 22aGoogle Scholar.

74 He, Huangchao jingshi wenbian, 104: 29b.

75 Zhang, Juji yide, 1: 11.

76 Zhang, Juji yide, 1: 11.

77 Lanxia, Liu 刘 兰 霞, Shuichang heqing: zhihe zhuanjia Jin Fu, Chen Huang 水 畅 河 清 ： 治 河 专 家 靳 辅 陈 潢 (Clear water and clean rivers: water control experts, Jin Fu and Chen Huang), Liaoning renmin chubanshe, Shenyang, 1997, p. 220Google Scholar.

78 diyi lishi dang'anguan, Zhongguo 中 国 第 一 历 史 档 案 馆 (ed.), Kangxi qijuzhu 康 熙 起 居 注 (Court diaries of the Kangxi Emperor), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 1984, p. 1511Google Scholar.

79 Zhongguo diyi lishi dang'anguan, Kangxi qijuzhu, p. 1511.

80 Jin, ‘Wenxiang zoushu’, 7: 50a–b.

81 A high official in the Ming dynasty wrote, ‘Since the Huai River scours into the Yellow River, it greatly damages Taoyuan, Suqian, and Pizhou counties. . . the boatmen there call farmland “hu”.’ See Han, Zhang 张 瀚, Songchuang mengyu 松 窗 梦 语 (Somniloquy of Songchuang), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 1997, p. 30Google Scholar. A Republican-era official also stated: ‘During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Suining was an area prone to flooding. When farmers headed out to the fields, it was known as “xia hu” (going down to the lake).’ See Jiangsu dang'an 江 苏 档 案, Suining xianzhang Zhu Bohong, canyihui yizhang Yao Yunfan zhi Jiangsusheng shuizai jizhen weiyuanhui (6 April 1948) 睢 宁 县 长 朱 伯 鸿 参 议 会 议 长 姚 云 帆 致 江 苏 省 水 灾 急 赈 委 员 会 (Telegrams from Magistrate Zhu Bohong and the Head of the Consultative Council of Suining County Yao Yunfan to the Relief Council of Jiangsu Province), Quanzhong 1009, juan 乙 –1918, microfilm 000292. The local dialect native to Shuyang, the hometown of the one of the authors of this paper, also refers to farmland as ‘lake’ or ‘marsh’.

82 Gu, Tianxia junguo libing shu, 43: 8a.

83 Ma, ‘Jituan liyi yu guoyun shuaibian’, pp. 114–126. (Note that p. 116 of this source gave an incorrect date—1697—for the loss of 170 ships on the Huai River. The date should be 1083.)

84 Gu, Tianxia junguo libing shu, 43: 7a.

85 Ma, ‘Jituan liyi yu guoyun shuaibian’, pp. 123–124.

86 Pietz, Engineering the State, p. 3.

87 Chi, Key Economic Areas, pp. 86–87; Ting, V. K., ‘Prof. Granet's “La Civilization Chinoise”’, The Chinese Social and Political Science Review, vol. xv, no. 2, 1931, pp. 268–269.Google Scholar

88 Xiangkun, Wang 王 象 坤 (ed.), Zhongguo zaipei dao qiyuan yu yanhua yanjiu zhuanji 中 国 栽 培 稻 起 源 与 演 化 研 究 专 集 (Collected papers on the origin and transformation of rice cultivation in China), Zhongguo nongye daxue chubanshe, Beijing, 1996, pp. 18–19Google Scholar.

89 Yunqian, Zeng 曾 运 乾, Shangshu zhengdu 尚 书 正 读 (Official explanations of the Classic of History), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 1964, pp. 57–58Google Scholar.

90 Wei, Hu 胡 渭, ‘Yugong zhuizhi’ 禹 贡 锥 指 (Explanation of Yugong), in Qinding siku quanshu, Jing bu, book 67, 5: 14bGoogle Scholar.

91 Jialun, Wang 汪 家 伦 (ed.), Zhongguo nongtian shuili shi 中 国 农 田 水 利 史 (History of farmland water conservancy in China), Nongye chubanshe, Beijing 1990, p. 111Google Scholar.

92 Ye, Fan 范 晔, Hou-Han shu 后 汉 书 (History of the Later Han dynasty), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 2000, vol. 15, p. 388Google Scholar.

93 Tongju, Wu, Huaixi nianbiao 淮 系 年 表 (Chronology of the Huai River), 1926, 2: 11Google Scholar.

94 Shou, Chen 陈 寿, Sanguo zhi 三 国 志 (History of the Three Kingdoms), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 2000, vol. 16, p. 385Google Scholar.

95 Yao, Shen 沈 约, Song shu 宋 书 (History of the Song dynasty), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 2000, vol. 5, p. 62Google Scholar.

96 Nianhai, Shi 史 念 海, Heshan ji 河 山 集 (Collected works from Heshan), Sanlian shudian, Beijing, 1978, p. 214Google Scholar.

97 Jin, ‘Wenxiang zoushu’, 7: 40b–41a.

98 Min Zongdian 闵 宗 殿, ‘Jiangsu dao shi’ 江 苏 稻 史 (History of rice in Jiangsu), Nongye kaogu 农 业 考 古 (Agricultural archaeology), no. 1, 1986, p. 255.

99 Zhizao, Wang 汪 之 藻, Qinghe xian zhi 清 河 县 志 (Gazetteer of Qinghe County), woodcut edition, 1695, 2: 59a–bGoogle Scholar.

100 disike, Jiangsu shengzhang gongshu 江 苏 省 长 公 署 第 四 科, Jiangsusheng shiye shicha baogaoshu 江 苏 省 实 业 视 察 报 告 书 (Report on industry in Jiangsu), Shangwu yinshuguan, Shanghai, 1919, p. 230Google Scholar.

101 Jiangsu shengzhang, Jiangsusheng shiye, pp. 220, 225; Rong, Pan 潘 熔, Xiao xian zhi 萧 县 志 (Gazetteer of Xiao County), woodcut edition, 1815, 5: 1aGoogle Scholar; Xian, Ding 丁 显, Suining xian zhi 睢 宁 县 志 (Gazetteer of Suining County), woodcut edition, 1886, 3: 5aGoogle Scholar; Xing, Yan 严 型, Suqian xian zhi 宿 迁 县 志 (Gazetteer of Suqian County), woodcut edition, 1935, 2: 9bGoogle Scholar.

102 Huanyong, Hu 胡 焕 庸, Lianghuai shuili yanken shilu 两 淮 水 利 盐 垦 实 录 (Record of water control and the cultivation of saline land in the Lianghuai region), Zhongyang daxue, Nanjing, 1934, p. 7Google Scholar; Babcock Cressey, George, China's Geographic Foundations: A Survey of the Land and its People, McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1934, p. 101.Google Scholar

103 Yutang, Lin, My Country and My People, John Day, New York, 1935, p. 19.Google Scholar

104 Wenhuan, Sui 眭 文 焕, Chongxiu Taoyuan xian zhi 重 修 桃 源 县 志 (Revised gazetteer of Taoyuan County), woodcut edition, 1917, 4: 11bGoogle Scholar.

105 Cressey, China's Geographic Foundations, p. 101; Naquin, Susan and Rawski, Evelyn S., Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1987, p. 98.Google Scholar

106 Zhang, Huaihe dili yanjiu, p. 90.

107 Mallory, Walter H., China: Land of Famine, American Geographical Society, New York, 1926, pp. 49–51.Google Scholar

108 Minguo dang'an 民 国 档 案, Anhuisheng gexian shouzai gaikuang ji peizheng jungongliang shuliang biao 安 徽 省 各 县 受 灾 概 况 及 配 征 收 军 公 粮 数 量 表 (General disaster situation in each county of Anhui province and tabulation of grain levied for military and government use), Quanzhong hao 116, juan hao 448 (1943).

109 The population figures for these counties are based on zhengfu zhujichu tongjiju, Guomin 国 民 政 府 主 计 处 统 计 局, Zhonghua minguo tongji tiyao 中 华 民 国 统 计 提 要 (Statistical abstract of the Republic of China), Shangwu yinshuguan, Shanghai, 1936, p. 238Google Scholar.

110 Fang, Anhui Si-Hong he zhi, 5: 2a; for a discussion of the ding unit, see Ho, Ping-ti, Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1959, Chapter 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

111 He, Huangchao jingshi wenbian, 23: 35a.

112 Tang, Jiaqing Haizhou zhilizhou zhi, 15: 1a–b.

113 Wu, Zaixu xingshui jinjian, Huaihe juan, pp. 118, 555, 580.

114 Zhaoxiong, Ouyang 欧 阳 兆 熊, Shuichuang chunyi 水 窗 春 呓 (Spring ramblings from Shuichuang), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 1984, p. 50Google Scholar.

115 Wenzhi, Li 李 文 治, Zhongguo jindai nongye shi ziliao 中 国 近 代 农 业 史 资 料 (Materials on the history of modern Chinese agriculture), Sanlian shudian, Beijing, 1957, vol. 1, p. 49Google Scholar.

116 Chee, Kwon Chun, ‘Agrarian unrest and the civil war in China’, Land Economics, vol. 26, no. 1, 1950, p. 17.Google Scholar

117 Xi, Wang 汪 熙 (ed.), Chen Hansheng wenji 陈 翰 笙 文 集 (Collected works of Chen Hansheng), Fudan daxue chubanshe, Shanghai, 1985, p. 47Google Scholar.

118 Jin, ‘Wenxiang zoushu’, 6: 59a–b.

119 Naihan, Xing 邢 耐 寒, ‘Xinhai Huaiyin jianwen lu’ 辛 亥 淮 阴 见 闻 录 (What I saw and heard in Huaiyin in 1911), Huaiyin wenshi ziliao 淮 阴 文 史 资 料 (Collected literary and historical materials on Huaiyin), 9, 1991, p. 3Google Scholar.

120 Zhongyang yanjiuyuan dang'an 中 央 研 究 院 档 案, ‘Daohuai an’ 导 淮 案 (Files on the dredging of the Huai River), file 08–21 (circa 1916), p. 5.

121 Jiang Feng 江 风, Huaibei nongcun diaocha 淮 北 农 村 调 查 (Investigation of rural Huaibei), n.p., 1984, pp. 20–21.

122 He, Huangchao jingshi wenbian, 140: 44b.

123 Jiaxian, Wang 王 家 诜, Tongshan xian zhi 铜 山 县 志 (Gazetteer of Tongshan County), woodcut edition, 1919, 15: 23aGoogle Scholar.

124 Zhen, Jia 贾 桢 (ed.), Da Qing Wenzong Xian huangdi shilu 大 清 文 宗 显 皇 帝 实 录 (Veritable records of the Xianfeng Emperor), [1886], reprint Daizo shuppansha, Tokyo, n.d., 222: 14aGoogle Scholar.

125 Shenzhen, Zhao 赵 慎 畛, Yuchao zazhi 榆 巢 杂 识 (Notes from Yuchao), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 2001, vol. 1, p. 70Google Scholar.

126 Junya, Ma and Wright, Tim, ‘Industrialization and handcraft cloth: The transformation of the modern Jiangsu peasant economy’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 44, no. 6, 2010, p. 1357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

127 Shi, Heshan ji, pp. 267–268.

128 Ma and Wright, ‘Industrialization and handcraft cloth’, p. 1357.

129 Kuntian, Wu 吴 昆 田, Huaian fuzhi 淮 安 府 志 (Gazetteer of Huaian Prefecture), woodcut edition, 1884, 2: 6aGoogle Scholar.

130 Fubao, Xue 薛 福 保, Qingpingxuan wenlu 青 萍 轩 文 录 (Collected works from the Qingping Pavilion), 1882, 1: 7bGoogle Scholar.