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Public Finance and the Rise of Warlordism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 November 2008

Hans J. Van De Ven
Hans J. Van De Ven
Affiliation:
University of Cambridge
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Extract

Previous studies of the rise of warlordism have focused on the devolution of power after the Taiping Rebellion and the failure of political leaders to create a workable order after the 1911 Revolution. This article offers an initial exploration of the fiscal background. Foreign indemnities imposed after the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 and largescale borrowing by the Qing before 1911 and by the Republic subsequently resulted in a severe fiscal crisis for the central state, with the following consequences.

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Articles
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Modern Asian Studies , Volume 30 , Issue 4 , October 1996 , pp. 829 - 868
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

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References

1 The literature on warlordism is reviewed in McCord, Edward, The Power of the Gun (Berkeley, University of California Press), pp. 2, 24–45;Google Scholar‘Recent Progress in warlord studies in the People's Republic of China’, in Republican China, vol. IX:2 (Feb. 1984), pp. 40–7.Google Scholar See also Lary, Diana, ‘Warlord studies’, Modern China, vol. VI:4 (10 1980), pp. 439–70.Google Scholar

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5 See Shiyi, Jia, Minguo caizhengshi (History of Republican finances, Shanghai: Commercial Press, foreword 1916), vol. I, pt 1, pp. 25–31 and vol. II, supplements, pp. 5–10.Google Scholar

6 Ibid., vol. I, pt 1, pp. 45–6; vol. II, pt 4, pp. 34–51. For the Crisp Loan, see also Second Historical Archives of China, Zhonghua Minguo shi dang'an ziliao huibian (Compilation of archival sources for the history of the Republic of China, Nanjing, Jiangsu Guji Press, 1991), vol. III:2, pp. 1001–6. Hereafter referred to as ZMDZ.

7 Shiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. 11, pt 4, pp. 35–42; ZMDZ, vol. III:2, pp. 1008–33;Google ScholarEdwards, E. W., British Diplomacy and Finance in China, 1895–1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), p. 75.Google Scholar

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9 Documents on domestic borrowing can be found in ZMDZ, vol. III:2, pp. 865–1000.Google Scholar

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20 Shiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 2, pp. 104;Google ScholarKuhn, Philip, ‘The development of local government’, in Fairbank, John K. and Feuerwerker, Albert (eds.), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 13 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 332; FT, vol. IV, pp. 3263–4. On the financing of modern education in Zhejiang, see Mary Rankin, Elite Activism, pp. 211–27.Google Scholar

21 Brunnert, H. S. and Hagelstrom, V. V., Present Day Political Organisation of China (Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh, 1912), pp. 186–9;Google ScholarHickey, Paul, ‘Fee-taking, salary reform, and the structure of state power in late Qing China, 1909–1911’, Modern China, vol. 17:3, p. 390.Google Scholar

22 These budgets can be found in Shiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 1, pp. 25–34.Google Scholar

23 Hickey, , ‘Fee-taking and salary reform’, pp. 390–2.Google Scholar

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26 Boorman, , Biographical Dictionary, vol. I, pp. 409–13.Google ScholarThe dates of his tenure of office are from BJ, vol. VI, pp. 202–3. Those listed in Boorman are different. Jia Shiyi lists three Ministers of Finance for the 1912–1916 period, without providing dates of their tenure. The third one was Zhou Ziqi, who according to BJ served from 12 February until April 27, 1914 (BJ, vol. VI, pp. 202–3).Google Scholar

27 See ‘Caizhengbu zhengli caizheng zong jihua shu’ (The Ministry of Finance's general plan for financial reform’, in Shiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 1, p. 137–80 and ZMDZ, vol. III:1, pp. 58–92.Google ScholarThe text reproduced in Jia is presented as providing the views of Zhou Xuexi. It is undated, but the text in ZMDZ, vol. III:1, pp. 58–92 is dated December 1912. Zhou was Minister at this time. For Xiong Xiling, seeGoogle ScholarShiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 1, pp. 180–92.Google Scholar

28 The general principle for the division between provincial and local taxes was that taxes that could be collected throughout the country or were connected to international affairs such as the Maritime Customs, should be central taxes. Others would be local. Concretely central taxes were to include the land taxes, customs dues, salt levies, the lijin, and various consumption taxes. Local taxes included the business tax (shangshui), livestock tax (shengxushui), real estate tax (fangjuan and dianjuan), opera tax (xijuan) and the land surcharge (tianfu fujiashui). See ‘Caizhengbu zhengbu caizheng zong jihua shu’, inGoogle ScholarShiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 1, p. 137–80 and ZMDZ, vol. III:1, pp. 58–92.Google ScholarFor the end of the reforms, see ‘Caizhengbu fengzhun quxiao guo di shui mingmu zi ’ (Communication of the Ministry of Finance [to the Ministry of Domestic Affairs] with regard to the approval for the abolition of categories of local and national taxes), in ZMDZ, vol. III:2, pp. 1235–6.Google Scholar

29 Boorman, , Biographical Dictionary, vol. I, p. 412.Google Scholar

30 Caijiao, Yan, ‘Zhengli tianfu liyou shu’ (Reasons for the rectification of the land tax) in ZMDZ, vol. III:2, pp. 1247–52;Google ScholarYeh-chien, Wang, Land Taxation, pp. 49–66;Google ScholarKung-chuan, Hsiao, Rural China: Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1972), pp. 106–113.Google Scholar

31 Quoted in Shiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 1, p. 197.Google ScholarThe text is not dated. The foreword to Jia's book is dated December 1916. Chen became Minister of Finance in June 1916, and the text presumably is meant to represent his views.Google Scholar

32 BJ, vol. VI, pp. 469–70;Google ScholarBoorman, , Biographical Dictionary, vol. I, p. 171.Google Scholar

33 Quoted in Shiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 1, p. 197.Google Scholar

34 ‘Caizhengbu zhengli caizheng zong jihua shu’, ZMDZ, vol. III:1, p. 63;Google ScholarShiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 1, p. 107; ‘Zhengshou tianfu kaocheng tiaoli’ (Regulations for the evaluation of performance in land tax collection), BJ, vol. I, pp. 540–6. Dated 11 December 1912.Google Scholar

35 Feuerwerker, ‘Economic trends’, p. 64.Google Scholar

36 Caijiao, Yan, ‘Reasons for land tax reform’, ZMDZ, vol. III:2, pp. 1247–50.Google Scholar

37 Ministry of Finance, ‘“1912–1918 ge sheng qu tianfu qingxing” gao’ (The land tax in various provinces and areas in the 1912–1918 period—draft), ZMDZ, vol. III:2, p. 1252.Google ScholarShiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 1, p. 102 and pt 2, pp. 81–90.Google Scholar

38 Ministry of Finance, ‘The land tax in the 1912–1918 period—draft’, ZMDZ, vol. III:2, pp. 1253–7;Google ScholarKe, Caizhengbu Tongji (Statistical Office of the Ministry of Finance), ‘Minguo caizheng jiyao’ (Summary of Republican fiscal administration), ZMDZ, vol. III:1, p. 140–1.Google Scholar

39 Caijiao, Yan, ‘Reasons for land tax reform’, ZMDZ, vol. III:2, pp. 1250–52; Ministry of Finance, ‘The land tax in the 1912–1918 period—draft’, ZMDZ, vol. III:2, pp. 1257–8;Google ScholarShiyi, Jia, Financial History, vol. I, pt 2, pp. 93–5.Google Scholar

40 Ministry of Finance, ‘The land tax in the 1912–1918 period—draft’, ZMDZ, vol. III:2, pp. 1268–9.Google Scholar

41 Duara, Prasenjit, Culture, Power, and the State: Rural North China, 1900–1942 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), p. 68.Google Scholar

42 ‘Zhengshitang wei you caizhengbu zhuan gesheng zhuoqing huanban qingzhang pian’ (Note from the Political Council [to the Minister of Finance], with respect to the Ministry of Finance requesting provinces to consider postponement of cadastral surveys), ZMDZ, vol. III:2, p. 1245. Dated 5 April 1916. The note quoted a presidential order. See also ‘Dazongton guanyu gesheng zhanhuan qingzhang ji qingcha tianmu shenling’ (Presidential order with respect to all provinces temporarily postponing investigation of land holding and cadastral surveys), ZMDZ, III:2, p. 1246. Dated 24 May 1916.Google Scholar

43 Young, Ernest, ‘Politics in the aftermath of revolution’, in Fairbank, John K. (ed.), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 12 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 228–37, 246–55.Google Scholar

44 Hailong Xianzhi (Hailong Gazetteer, unpublished, 1913 foreword by Bai Yongzhen, then the Hailong County magistrate), pp. 27–9. Hereafter referred to as HX.Google Scholar See also Billingsley, Philip, Bandits in Republican China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), pp. 17–22, 28–9;Google Scholar and McCormack, Gavan, Chang Tso-lin in North-east China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 16–17;Google ScholarKefu, Jiang, Short Military History, p. 77.Google Scholar

45 Jilin Branch of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, et al. (eds.), Jindai Dongbei renmin geming yundong shi (History of the people's revolutionary movements in the modern North-East, Changchun: Jilin people's Press, 1960), pp. 174–7.Google Scholar

46 Kefu, Jiang, Short Military History, pp. 77–80.Google Scholar

47 Xinzheng can mean both. I prefer my translation because the reforms were an attempt to transform the entire way that China's government worked and to give officialdom new energy. It was far more than a set of new policies.

48 FT, pp. 3256–64.

49 FT, pp. 3264–74.

50 FT, vol. III, pp. 3247–8; BJ, vol. VI, pp. 490–1.

51 Thompson, Roger, ‘Visions of the future, realities of the day: local administrative reform, electoral politics, and traditional Chinese society on the eve of the 1911 Revolution’ (Yale University Ph.D. dissertation, 1985), pp. 134–5.Google Scholar

52 For the reforms, see FT, vol. III, pp. 3264–74 and p. 3247.

53 FT, vol. III, p. 3247.

54 FT, vol. II, pp. 3327–9.Google Scholar

55 Hengjun, Ren, ‘Xu Shichang’ in Daxing, Yang et al. (eds.), Beiyang Zhengfu zongtong yu zongli (The presidents and premiers of the Beiyang Government, Tianjin: Nankai University Press, 1989), pp. 87–93.Google Scholar

56 FT, vol. III, pp. 3329–31.

57 BJ, vol. VI, p. 60; FT, vol. III, p. 3248;Google ScholarDongbei Renwu Dacidian Editorial Committee (eds.), Dongbei Renwu Dacidian (Biographical dictionary for the North-East, Shenyang: Shenyang People's Press, 1991), p. 798. The latter gives 1835 as Zhang's date of birth. I follow BJ because even though 1835 is possible, the later date of birth must be considered more likely. Zhang Xiluan was a very experienced official who had been in charge of fiscal and military affairs in Fengtian, sometimes simultaneously.Google Scholar

58 FT, vol. III, pp. 3329–30.

59 See Jilin Branch of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, et al. (eds.), History of the People's Revolutionary Movements in the Modern North-East, pp. 169–75.Google Scholar

60 Ibid., p. 269.

61 ‘Hailongxian Lin zhishi wei bugao shi’ (Proclamation by County Magistrate Lin), included in ‘Hailongxian ershiyi xiang xiangmin zhi Zhang Yuanqi pin’ (Petition to Zhang Yuanqi by the residents of the 21 xiang in Hailong) in Liaoning Provincial Archives, Zhonghua Minguo shi ziliao, Conggao: diangao: Fengxi junfa midian, diyici (Draft compilation of sources for the history of the Chinese Republic: telegram manuscripts: Secret Telegrams by Warlords of the Fengtian Clique (Shenyang: Zhonghua shuju, 1984, 3 volumes), vol. 1, p. 52. The petition was dated 10 March 1915; the proclamation 2 January 1915. Xiang refers to electoral districts created for the election of sub-county assemblies and management boards in 1911. Vol. 1 of the collection is hereafter referred to as FXMD.Google Scholar

62 HX, pp. 31–3.Google Scholar

63 Ibid., pp. 4–5.

64 The census was probably conducted in preparation of lcoal representative bodies, and in Hailong these were formed in the autumn of 1911 (HX, p. 10).

65 Ibid., pp. 29–30.

66 Ibid., p. 31.

67 Petition to Zhang Yuanqi by the residents of the 21 xiang of Hailong County, FXMD, p. 50. Dated 9 March 1915 (hereafter, Petition, FXMD and p. no., 9 March 1915).

68 This figure is arrived at by doubling the total of old land tax revenues and then taking 30% of this: obviously only a rough guess.

69 ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Fengtian Xun'anshi shu xiang’ (Report by Lin Guozhen to the Office of the Fengtian Civil Governor), FXMD, p. 44. dated 23 Feb. 1915.

70 Petition, FXMD, p. 48. Dated 9 March 1915. On the background of incumbents of the post, see Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Political Organisation, p. 408.Google Scholar

71 HX, p. 31.

72 The Fengtian Provincial Gazetteer records that the province was struck by an outbreak of pestilence in 1911 and that the gentry and merchants of Kaiyuan County, which neighbours Hailong, raised money for relief work in 1912, 1914 and 1915. Tax remittances were approved for 1914. In 1915 a large flood led to many refugees (FT, vol. III, p. 3297). The Fengtian Provincial Gazetteer does not record information on natural calamities for Hailong County, but the petitioners did claim that harvests had badly suffered for several successive years. See Petition, FXMD, p. 555. Dated 9 March 1915. The Hailong Gazetteer too laments that the county's economy was not as prosperous as it had been in the past and stated that tax increases were simply impossible. See HX, pp. 19, 31, 34–5.

73 As Lucien Bianco has noted, the dearth and very uneven quality of information on tax resistance movements in the Republican period has rendered them difficult to study (Bianco, Lucien, ‘Peasant movements’, in Fairbank, and Feuerwerker, (eds.), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 13, pp. 270–1). So far only one such tax resistance movement, taking place in Shandong in 1910, has been described in any detail. Roxann Prazniak showed that in Shandong, tax resistance was led by a network of commoner leaders that had always dealt with village affairs and respresented the community to county officials.Google Scholar (Prazniak, Roxann, ‘Tax protest at Laiyang, Shandong, 1910: commoner organisation versus the county political elite’, in Modern China vol. 6:1 (01 1980), pp. 41–71). The same was true in Fengtian Province, although I am less sanguine about the altruistic motives of protest leaders.Google Scholar

74 Petition, FXMD, p. 48. Dated 9 March 1915. See also the petitions reproduced on pp. 49–50, 51–2, 54, 55–6.

75 ‘Fengtian Qitian kangzhang fengchao ji’ (Agitation against land surveys of the Fengtian Banner lands), BJ, vol. I, pp. 586–8, first published in The Times (Shibao), 9 March 1914.Google Scholar

76 For sources, see cases listed in Table 8; also ‘Fengtian Huaide Fenghua xiangmin kangjuan’ (Resistance by villagers against levies in Huaide and Fenghua counties, Fengtian Province), BJ, vol. I, pp. 597–8, first published in Shenbao, 23 July 1914; ‘Fengtian Gaiping Xian xiangmin yaoqiu huanqi qingzhang’ (Villagers of Gaiping County in Fengtian Province demand postponement of land investigation), in BJ, vol. I, p. 614, first published in the Shengjing Daily, 22 April 1916; ‘Fengtian Dongfeng Xian Qingzhang Fengchao’ (Agitation against land measurements in Dongfeng County in Fengtian Province), BJ, vol. I, p. 614, first published in the Shengjing Daily, 26 May 1916.Google Scholar

77 Petition, FXMD, p. 49. Dated 9 March 1915.

78 See e.g. ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Zhang Xiluan bin’ (Report by Lin Guozhen to Zhang Xiluan), FXMD, p. 39. Dated 23 March 1915; ‘Zhang Qihuai fu Zhang Yuanqi dian’ (Reply by telegraph from Zhang Qihuai to Zhang Yuanqi), FXMD, pp. 42–3. Dated 5 March 1915; ‘Wang Zeyong, Zhang Qihuai zhi Zhang Yuanqi dian’ (Telegram from Wang Zeyong and Zhang Qihuai to Zhang Yuanqi), FXMD, p. 46. dated 6 March 1915.

79 The Shengjing Daily of 9 March 1915 reported that this had happened, but this is not supported by official documents and was denied immediately by the authorities.

80 ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Fengtian Xun'anshi shu xiang’, FXMD, p. 40. Dated 23 Feb. 1915.

81 For typical instances, see Ibid.; ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Zhang Xiluan bin’, FXMD, p. 56. Dated 23 March 1915; ‘Zhang Chunxi zhi Duan Zhigui xiang’ (Report from Zhang Chunxi to Duan Zhingui), FXMD, pp. 167–9. Dated 21 Jan. 1916; ‘Shen Guomian zhi Duan Zhigui xiang’ (Report from Shen Guomian to Duan Zhigui), FXMD, p. 176. Dated 28 Jan. 1916.

82 ‘Zhang Chunxi zhi Duan Zhigui xiang’, FXMD, pp. 167–9. Dated 21 Jan. 1916.

83 Duara, Prasenjit, Culture, Power, and the State, pp. 55–7.Google Scholar

84 ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Fengtian Xun'anshi shu xiang’, FXMD, p. 40. Dated 23 Feb. 1915.

85 For example, Ibid.. For other examples see an order by Zhang Yuanqi quoted in Petition, FXMD, p. 49. Dated 9 March 1915. ‘Zhang Chunxi zhi Duan Zhigui xiang’, FXMD, pp. 167–9. Dated 21 Jan. 1916.

86 ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Fengtian Xun'anshi shu xiang’, FXMD, p. 40. Dated 23 Feb. 1915. See also ‘Zhang Chunxi zhi Duan Zhigui xiang’, FXMD, pp. 167–9. Dated 21 Jan. 1916.

87 ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Fengtian Xun'anshi shu xiang’, FXMD, p. 44. Dated 5 March 1915.

88 HX, p. 10.

89 ‘Li Zhongqi zhi Zhang Yuanqi mi bin’ (Secret report by Li Zhongqi to Zhang Yuanqi), ZMDZ, p. 59. Dated 28 June 1915.

90 Ibid., p. 59.

91 Ibid..

92 ‘Zhang Yuanqi fu Li Zhongqi han gao’ (Draft response by Zhang Yuanqi to a letter from Li Zhongqi), FXMD, p. 59. Dated 4 July 1915.

93 ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Fengtian Xun'anshi shu xiang’, FXMD, p. 44. Dated 5 March 1915.

94 ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Fenglian Xun'anshi shu xiang’, FXMD, p. 40. Dated 23 Feb. 1915.

95 ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Fenglian Xun'anshi shu xiang’, FXMD, p. 44. Dated 5 March 1915.

96 ‘Lin Guozhen zhi Fengtian Xun'anshi shu xiang’, FXMD, p. 40. Dated 23 Feb. 1915.

97 ‘Zhang Chunxi zhi Duan Zhigui xiang’, FXMD, p. 168. Dated 21 Jan. 1916.

98 Quoted in Petition, FXMD, p. 49. Dated 9 March 1915.

99 For Hailong, see ‘Zhang Yuanqi zhi Lin Guozhen dian gao’ (Telegram from Zhang Yuanqi to Lin Guozhen, draft), FXMD, p. 440. Dated 25 Feb. 1915 and orders by Zhang Yuanqi quoted in Petition, FXMD, p. 49. Dated 9 March 1915. On the issue in general, see ‘Wang Zeyong zhi Zhang Yuanqi xiang’ (Report by Wang Zeyong to Zhang Yuanqi), FXMD, p. 54. Wang was an official sent to Hailong to investigate Lin Guozhen's conduct.

100 ‘Zhang Qihuai zhi Zhang Yuanqi dian’ (Telegram from Zhang Qihuai to Zhang Yuanqi), FXMD, pp. 42–3. Dated 5 March 1915. ‘Zhang Yuanqi zhi Zhang Qihuai dian gao’ (Draft of a telegram from Zhang Yuanqi to Zhang Qihuai), FXMD. p. 43. Dated 5 March 1915. ‘Zhang Yuanqi zhi Zhang Qihuai dian gao’, FXMD, p. 42. Dated 4 March 1915.

101 ‘Zhang Chunxi zhi Duan Zhigui xiang’, FXMD, pp. 167–9.

102 Ibid., p. 168.

103 Tiehan, Wang, Dongbei junshi shiliao (Sources for the military history of the North-East, vol. 52 in Chuanji wenxue congshu (Collection of biographical literature), Taipei: Chuanji wenxue chubanshe, 1972), pp. 16–18.Google Scholar

104 ‘Ma Longtan zhi Duan Zhigui dian’ (Telegram from Ma Longtan to Duan Zhigui), FXMD, p. 173. Dated 27 Jan. 1916. ‘Zhang Chunxi zhi Duan Zhigui kuaiyou dai dian’ (Post haste letter instead of telegram, from Zhang Chunxi to Duan Zhigui), FXMD, p. 170. Dated 27 Jan. 1916. Kuandian County had not been connected yet to the telegraph network. Post haste letters were sent by courier to a town where there was a telegraph station and not necessarily transposed into code (FXMD, 167).

105 ‘Ma Longtan zhi Duan Zhigui dian’, FXMD, p. 173. Dated 28 Jan. 1916.

106 ‘Fengtian Andong Xian xiangmin kangna qianliang mujuan’ (Resistance of the villagers of Andong County in Fengtian Province against the payment of land taxes and mu levies), BJ, I, 614. This is a report by the magistrate dated 17 June 1916.

107 FXMD, pp. 176–80 reproduces thirteen documents, dated from 28 Jan. to 11 April 1916, relating to the case.

108 ‘Fengtian Taonan Xian Gongshu xunling di 87 hao’ (Taonan County Office, Fengtian Province: instruction number 87), BJ, vol. I, p. 616. Dated 14 December 1916.

109 Kefu, Jiang, Short Military History, pp. 77–81; Tiehan, Wang, Sources for the Military History of the North-East, pp. 1–18; McCormack, , Chang Tso-lin, pp. 24–7.Google Scholar

110 See ‘Fengtian Qitian kangzhang da fengchao ji’ (Wave of resistance against Banner land survey), BJ, vol. I, pp. 586–8. Original published in The Times, 9 March 1914.Google Scholar

111 BJ, vol. 2, p. 1117.

112 Boorman, , Biographical Dictionary, vol. I, p. 116.Google Scholar

113 ‘Duan Zhigui zhi Zhang Chunxi’ (Duan Zhigui to Zhang Chunxi), in FXMD, p. 169–70. Dated 24 Jan. 1916.

114 ‘Zhang Chunxi zhi Duan Zhigui’ (Zhang Chunxi to Duan Zhigui), FXMD, p. 169–70. Dated 27 Jan. 1916.

115 See ‘Ma Longtan zhi Duan Zhigui dian’, FXMD, p. 173. Dated 27 Jan. 1916.