Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T20:45:19.184Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Local Bondage in Global Economies: Servants, wage earners, and indentured migrants in nineteenth-century France, Great Britain, and the Mascarene Islands*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2013

ALESSANDRO STANZIANI
ALESSANDRO STANZIANI*
Affiliation:
École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, Paris; Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Paris, France Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper compares the definitions, practices, and legal constraints on labour in Britain, France, Mauritius, and Reunion Island in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It argues that the way in which indentured labour was defined and practised in the colonies was linked to the definition and practice of wage labour in Europe and that their development was interconnected. The types of bondage that existed in the colonies were extreme forms of the notion, practices, and rules of labour in Europe. It would have been impossible to develop the indenture contract in the British and French empires if wage earners in Britain and France had not been servants. The conceptions and practices of labour in Europe and its main colonies influenced each other and were part of a global dynamic.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 47 , Issue 4 , July 2013 , pp. 1218 - 1251
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

I would like to express my gratitude to Frederick Cooper (New York University), William Gervase Clarence-Smith (School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London), Claude Markovits (École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, Centre national de la recherche scientifique), Gilles Postel-Vinay (École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales), and the participants at the Conference of the Indian Labour History Association, Delhi, March 2010, for their valuable comments and suggestions. I also acknowledge my debt to the two anonymous referees.

References

1 Prior to 1911, the term ‘Celestial empire’ was often used to describe China.

2 Conrad, Joseph, Typhoon. First published: New York, Putnam, 1902, Chapter 1, p. 7.Google Scholar

3 Tinker, Hugh, A new system of slavery: the export of Indian labour overseas, 1830–1920. London, Hansib, 1974Google Scholar; Patnaik, Utsa and Dingwaney, M. (eds), Chains of servitude: bondage and slavery in India. Madras, Sargam Books, 1985Google Scholar; Prakash, Gyan, Bonded histories: genealogies of labour servitude in colonial India. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Quang, Ho Hai, Histoire économique de l'île de la Réunion, 1849–1881: engagisme, croissance et crise. Paris, Lavoisier, 2004Google Scholar; Fuma, Sudel, De l'Inde du sud à la Réunion. Port-Louis, Graphica 1999Google Scholar; Sully-Santa Govindin, Les engagés indiens. Saint-Denis la Réunion, Azalées, 1994; Michèle Marimoutou, Les engagés du sucre. Saint-Denis La Réunion, Editions du tramail, 1999; Wong-Hee-Kam, Edith, La diaspora chinoise aux Mascareignes: le cas de la Réunion. Paris, L'Harmattan, 1996Google Scholar.

4 Northrup, David, Indentured labour in the age of imperialism. 1834–1922. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995Google Scholar; Carter, Marina, Servants, sirdars and settlers. Indians in Mauritius, 1834–1874. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1995Google Scholar; Maestri, Edmond, Esclavage et abolition dans l'Océan Indien, 1723–1860. Paris, L'Harmattan, 2002.Google Scholar

5 Useful bibliographies include: Scott, Rebecca, Holt, Thomas, Cooper, Frederick and McGuinness, Aims, Societies after slavery. A selected annotated bibliography of printed sources on Cuba, Brazil, British colonial Africa, South Africa and the British West India. Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004Google Scholar; Miller, Joseph Calder, Slavery and slaving in world history: a bibliography, 1900–1996. Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, 1999Google Scholar; Drescher, Seymour and Engerman, Stanley (eds), A historical guide to world slavery. New York, Oxford, 1998Google Scholar; Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier, Les traites négrières. Paris, Gallimard, 2004Google Scholar; Dorigny, Marcel and Gainot, Bernard, Atlas des esclavages. Paris, Editions autrement, 2006Google Scholar.

6 Steinfeld, Robert, The invention of free labour: the employment relation in English and American law and culture, 1350–1870. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1991Google Scholar. On the movable boundary between ‘free’ and ‘unfree’ labour, see Engerman, Stanley (ed.), Terms of labour: slavery, serfdom and free labour. Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1999Google Scholar; Bush, Michael L., Servitude in modern times. Cambridge, Polity Press, 2000Google Scholar. Cooper, Frederick, Holt, Thomas and Scott, Rebecca, Beyond slavery: explorations of race, labour and citizenship on post-emancipation societies. Chapel Hill, North Carolina Press, 2000Google Scholar; Brass, Tom and van der Linden, Marcel (eds), Free and unfree labour. The debate continues. Bern, Peter Lang, 1997.Google Scholar

7 Lucassen, Jan and Lucassen, Leo (eds), Migration, migration history, history. Old paradigms and new perspectives. Berne, Peter Lang, 1997Google Scholar; Eltis, David, Coerced and free migration: global perspectives. Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2002Google Scholar; Galenson, David, White servitude in colonial America: an economic analysis. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981Google Scholar; Grubb, Farley, ‘The incidence of servitude in trans-Atlantic migration, 1771–1804’, Explorations in economic history, 22, 3 (1985), pp. 316–339CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Paul Barth, Gunther, Bitter strength: a history of the Chinese in the United States, 1850–1870. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1964Google Scholar; Wanquet, Claude, La France et la première abolition de l'esclavage (1794–1802). Paris, Karthala, 1998Google Scholar; Schnakenbourg, Christian, Histoire de l'industrie sucrière en Guadeloupe aux XIXe et XXe siècles. Paris, L'Harmattan, 2007Google Scholar; Flory, Céline, ‘Le Noir: permanence des représentations et travail libre (1848–1860)’, in Fouck, Mam Lam and Zonzon, Jacqueline (eds), L'histoire de la Guyane depuis les civilisations amérindiennes. Matoury, Ibis Rouge Editions, 2006, pp. 393–406.Google Scholar

8 Cooper, Frederick, From slaves to squatters. Plantation labor and agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890–1925. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1980.Google Scholar

9 Watson, James (ed.), Asian and African systems of slavery. Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1980Google Scholar; Scarr, Derick, Slaving and slavery in the Indian Ocean. London and New York, Longman, 1998CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Benton, Lauren, Law and colonial culture. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002Google Scholar; Craton, Michael, Empire, enslavement and freedom in the Caribbean. Kingston, Randle Publishers, 1997Google Scholar; Galanter, Marc, Law and society in modern India. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1989Google Scholar; Hay, Douglas and Craven, Paul, Masters, servants and magistrates in Britain and the Empire, 1562–1955. Chapel Hill and London, University of North Carolina Press, 2004Google Scholar; Watson, Alan, Slave law in the Americas. Athens, Georgia, University of Georgia Press, 1989.Google Scholar

10 Chaudhuri, Kirti N., Trade and civilisation in the Indian Ocean. An economic history from the rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chaudhuri, Kirti N., Asia before Europe: economy and civilisation of the Indian ocean from the rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992Google Scholar; Markovitz, Claude, The global world of Indian merchants. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000.Google Scholar

11 Clarence-Smith, William Gervase, The economics of the Indian Ocean slave trade. London, Frank Cass, 1989Google Scholar; Campbell, Gwyn (ed.), The structure of slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia. London, Frank Cass, 2004Google Scholar; Cooper, Frederick, Plantation slavery on the east coast of Africa. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977.Google Scholar

12 Coornaert, Emile, Les corporations en France. Paris, Gallimard 1941Google Scholar; Thompson, Edward P., The making of the English working class. London, Victor Gollancz, 1963Google Scholar. Sewell, William, Gens de métier et révolution. Le langage du travail de l'Ancien régime à 1848, Paris, Aubier, 1983.Google Scholar

13 Sonenscher, Michael, Works and wages. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989Google Scholar; Minard, Philippe, La fortune du colbertisme. Paris, Fayard, 1998Google Scholar; Kaplan, Steven L., La fin des corporations. Paris, Fayard, 2002Google Scholar; Epstein, Steven R., ‘Crafts, guilds, apprenticeship, and technological change in preindustrial Europe’, The Journal of Economic History, 58, 3 (1998), pp. 684–713CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berg, Maxine, The age of manufactures, 1700–1820, London, Routledge, 1985Google Scholar; Stanziani, Alessandro (ed.), Dictionnaire historique de l'économie-droit, XVIIIe-XXe siècles. Paris, Librairie Générale de Droit et Jurisprudence, 2007.Google Scholar

14 Cottereau, Alain, ‘Droit et bon droit. Un droit des ouvriers instauré, puis évincé par le droit du travail, France, XIXe siècle’, Annales HSC, 57, 6 (2002), pp. 1521–1557CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Deakin, Simon and Wilkinson, Frank, The law of the labour market: industrialization, employment, and legal evolution. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Steinmetz, Willibald (ed.), Private law and social inequalities in the industrial age. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2000.Google Scholar

15 Dewerpe, Alain, Le monde du travail en France, 1800–1950. Paris, Colin, 1989Google Scholar; Lequin, Yves and Delsalle, Pierre, La brouette et la navette: tisserands, paysans et fabricants dans la région de Roubaix et de Tourcoing, 1800–1848. Lille, Westhoek, 1985Google Scholar; Goff, Jacques Le, Du silence à la parole. Rennes, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2004.Google Scholar

16 Domat, Jean, Les lois civiles dans leur ordre naturel, Vol. 1. First published 1697; reprinted in Œuvres, Paris, Alex Gobelet, 1835Google Scholar; Pothier, Robert-Joseph, Traité du contrat de louage. Paris, Bugnet, 1861Google Scholar.

17 Sonenscher, Works and wages, p. 70.

18 Sonenscher, Works and wages, p. 75.

19 Encyclopédie méthodique, Vol. 9: ‘Jurisprudence’. Paris, Panckoucke, 1789, p. 15. Maza, Sara, Servants and masters in eighteenth century France. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1983Google Scholar; Gutton, Jean-Pierre, Domestiques et serviteurs dans la France d'Ancien Régime. Paris, Aubier-Montaigne, 1981.Google Scholar

20 Cottereau, ‘Droit’.

21 Moriceau, Jean-Marc, ‘Les Baccanals ou grèves des moissonneurs en pays de France, seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle’, in Nicolas, Jean (ed.), Mouvements populaires et conscience sociale. Paris, Le Seuil, 1985, pp. 420–433.Google Scholar

22 Hoffman, Philip T., Growth in a traditional society. The French countryside, 1450–1815. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 40.Google Scholar

23 Mayaud, Jean-Luc, ‘Salariés agricoles et petite propriété dans la France du XIXe siècle’, in Hubscher, Ronald and Farcy, Jean-Claude, La moisson des autres, Paris, Créaphys édition, 1996, pp. 29–56.Google Scholar

24 Hoffman, Growth, pp. 45–46.

25 Rozier, Abbé, Cours complet d'agriculture ou Dictionnaire universel d'agriculture. Paris, Unknown printer, 1789, Vol. 8, p. 353Google Scholar, entry: ‘domestique’.

26 Collins, E.J.T., ‘Migrant labour in British agriculture in nineteenth century’, Economic History Review, 29, 1 (1976), pp. 38–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Postel-Vinay, Gilles, ‘The dis-integration of traditional labour markets in France. From agriculture and industry to agriculture or industry’, in Grantham, George and MacKinnon, Mary, Labour market evolution. Routledge, London and New York, 1994, pp. 64–83.Google Scholar

27 Little research has been done on the post-revolutionary period using legal sources to study agricultural labour as Cottereau did for certain industries. One of the exceptions is Yvonne Crebouw, ‘Salaires et salariés agricoles en France, des débuts de la révolution aux approches du XXe siècle’, PhD thesis, University of Paris, 1986; Yvonne Crebouw, ‘Droit et obligations des journaliers et des domestiques, droits et obligations des maîtres’, in Hubscher and Farcy, La moisson, pp. 181–200.

28 Archives Nationales, Paris (henceforth AN), sery F 10 452 ‘Fixation des salaires agricoles’; AN, C 1157 to 1161 (archives parlementaires); Clément, Henry, Essai sur les usages locaux du Pas-de-Calais. Arras, Topino, 1856.Google Scholar

29 Crebouw, Salariés.

30 Parliamentary enquiry of 1870, in AN, C 1157 to 1161.

31 Oudin, Henri, Recueil des usages locaux en vigueur dans le département de la Vienne. Poitiers, Oudin, 1861Google Scholar; Lucy (justice of the peace), Recueil des usages locaux du département d'Indre-et-Loire. Tours, Local justice of the peace, 1909; Louis Carrier de Ladeveze, Notice sur les usages locaux. Villefranche de Périgord, Dordogne, Sarlat 1908; Pages, Antoine, Usages et règlements locaux, servant de complément à la loi civile et topographie légale du département de l'Isère. Grenoble, Baratier frères 1855.Google Scholar

32 The livret ouvrier was a discharge certificate; it had to certify that a worker had been engaged for a specific job and that it had been completed (quittance) or to acknowledge that the worker had not yet paid off advances received as wages and that his debt remained to be deducted from future wages by the new employer.

33 AN, C 846 to 860.

34 Crebouw, ‘Droit et obligations’.

35 Crebouw, ‘Droit et obligations’.

36 Cottereau, ‘Droit’.

37 Rare research into this has been done by: Debien, Gabriel, Les engagés pour les Antilles 1634–1715. Paris, Société de l'histoire des colonies françaises, 1952Google Scholar; Dechêne, Louise, Habitants et marchands de Montréal au XVIIe siècle. Paris, Plon, 1974Google Scholar; Mauro, Frédéric, ‘French indentured servants for America, 1500–1800’, in Emmer, Pieter C., Colonialism and migration; indentured labour before and after slavery. Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publisher; Boston, Lancaster, 1986, pp. 83–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

38 Archives Départementales de Charente maritime, Minutier Teuleron, 1638–1680, in particular files: 1638, 1641, 1649, 1651, 1666–67, 1670, 1671. Also: Bibliothèque nationale, section des manuscrits, ‘Nouvelles acquisitions de France’, 9328, copies of documents on immigration to the colonies (inhabitants, engagés, slaves).

39 Archives Départementales de Charente maritime, Ex Moreau minutes, 19 and 25 April 1664.

40 Dechêne, Habitants, p. 1974; Mauro, ‘French indentured servants’.

41 Galenson, White servitude.

42 Alpers, Edward, ‘The French slave trade in East Africa 1721–1810’, Cahiers d'études africaines, 10, 37 (1970), pp. 80–124CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Monica Schuler, ‘The recruitment of African indentured labourers for European colonies in the nineteenth century’, in Emmer, Colonialism, pp. 125–161; Alpers, Edward, Ivory and slaves: changing patterns of international trade in East and Central Africa to the later nineteenth century. Berlekey and Los Angeles, California University Press, 1975Google Scholar; Gerbeau, Herbert, ‘Quelques aspects de la traite illégale des esclaves à Bourbon au XIXe siècle’ in Mouvements de populations dans l'Océan Indien. Paris, Imprimerie Champion, 1979, pp. 273–296Google Scholar. Also Maillard, Louis, Notes sur l'île de la Réunion. Paris, Dentu, 1862Google Scholar.

43 The National Archives (henceforth TNA), CO 415/9/A.221, 1827.

44 Centre des Archives d'Outre Mer (henceforth CAOM), 30 COL 117, 160, 639, years 1823–1836. Archives départementales de la Réunion (henceforth ADR) in 57 M1, for example: ‘Exposé de la situation intérieure de la colonie en 1832 par le directeur de l'intérieur’ and ‘Rapport sur les différents services de la colonie’, 1828.

45 Maillard, Notes, p. 190.

46 Bulletin officiel de l'Ile Bourbon, arrêté du 3 juillet 1829.

47 Vaughan, Megan, Creating the Creole Island slavery in eighteenth century Mauritius. Durham and London, Duke University Press, 2007.Google Scholar

48 CAOM FM SG/Reu c 406, c 432 d 4603 à 4606 (immigration chinoise). CAOM French colonial archives, Aix-en-Province. (FM stands for Fonds ministériels; SG for Série Géographiques (geographical series), and Reu stands for Reunion Island; c is the box and d, the file in the box.) Also: ADR 168 M 3.

49 Sudel Fuma, Esclaves et citoyens, le destin de 62 000 Réunionnais, histoire de l'insertion des affranchis de 1848 dans la société réunionnaise. Saint-Denis, La Réunion, Fondation pour la Recherche et le Développement dans l'Océan Indien, 1979, 2nd edition 1982, p. 116.

50 CAOM FM SG/Reu c 380 d 3288, c 370 d 3180.

51 CAOM FM SG Inde 464, d 590, letter 26 February 1848.

52 L'indicateur colonial, 12 April 1847.

53 CAOM, Réunion, tableau de l'immigration africaine à la réunion de 1848 à 1869, c 454, d 5042 à 5074. Also Huang, Ho Hai, Histoire économique de l'île de la Réunion, 1849–1881: engagisme, croissance et crise. Paris, Lavoisier, 2004.Google Scholar

54 Schuler, ‘The recruitment’. François Renault, Libération d'esclaves et nouvelle servitude: les rachats de captifs africains pour le compte des colonies françaises après l'abolition de l'esclavage. Abidjan, Nea, 1976. Sidi Ainouddine, ‘L'esclavage aux Comores. Son fonctionnement de la période arabe en 1904’, in Maestri, Esclavage, pp. 89–114.

55 Fuma, Esclaves. Chaillou, Virginie, De l'Inde à la Réunion. Histoire d'une transition. L'épreuve du lazaret, 1860–1882. Océan éditions, Saint-André de la Réunion, 2002.Google Scholar

56 Jacques Weber, ‘L'émigration indienne à la Réunion: ‘contraire à la morale’ ou ‘utile à l'humanité’, in Maestri, Esclavage, pp. 309–328.

57 Le Moniteur de la Réunion, 3 July 1852.

58 Bulletin officiel de l'île de la Réunion, 13 February 1852.

59 Litigations are available in: ADR, séries U 339, 349 (justice of the peace). On women, see Fuma, Esclaves.

60 CAOM FM SM/Reu c 379 d 3211 and c 383 d 3323.

61 CAOM FM SG/Reu c 384 d 3341, Reports of the syndic of immigrants, 1858, 1859 up to 1864.

62 CAOM FM SG/Reu c 384 d 3341, Reports of the syndic of immigrants, 1858, 1859 up to 1864.

63 Northrup, Indentured, pp. 129–132.

64 CAOM FM SG/Reu c 382 (a few dozen files) and c 379.

65 CAOM FM SG/Reu c 379 d 3211.

66 CAOM FM SG/Reu c 382 d 3324, 3310 3311, 3318.

67 CAOM FM SM SG/Réunion c 379 d 3217, 3210.

68 CAOM FM SM SG/Reu c 382 d 3323.

69 CAOM FM SM SG/Reu c 379 d 3203.

70 CAOM FM SG/SG Reu c 385 d 3367.

71 Justice cour d'assise, Saint-Denis, 3e session 1868, CAOM FM SG/SG Reu c 385 d 3367.

72 Northrup, Indentured, p. 31; Allen, Richard, Slaves, freedmen, and indentured labourers in colonial Mauritius, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 23.Google Scholar

73 CAOM FM SG/Reu c 400 d 3688; c 514 d 5970. Also Bourquin, Alexandre, Prudhomme, Claude and Gerbeau, Hubert, Histoire des petits-blancs à la Réunion. Paris, Karthala, 2005.Google Scholar

74 CAOM FM SG/Reu c 515 d 6005.

75 Drescher, Seymour, Abolition. A History of slavery and antislavery, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

76 Lindert, Peter H. and Williamson, Geoffrey, ‘Revising England's social tables, 1688–1812’, Explorations in economic history, XIX (1982), pp. 385–408CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Also Lindert, Peter H. and Williamson, Geoffrey, ‘English workers’ living standards during the Industrial Revolution: a new look’, Economic history review, XXXIV (1983), pp. 1–25.Google Scholar

77 Timmer, Charles, ‘The turnip, the new husbandry, and the English agricultural revolution’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, LXXXIII (1969), pp. 375–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

78 Stanziani, Alessandro, ‘The travelling Panopticon. Labor institutions and labor practices in Russia and Britain in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 51, 4 (2009), pp. 715–741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

79 Steinfeld, The invention, p. 30; Kussmaul, Ann, Servants in husbandry in early modern England. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 Woods, Donna C., ‘The operation of the masters and servants act in the Black Country, 1858–1875’, Midland History, 7 (1982), pp. 93–115CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Freedland, Mark R., The contract of employment. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1976Google Scholar; Galenson, David, ‘The rise of free labour: economic change and the enforcement of service contract in England, 1361–1875’, in James, John and Thomas, Mark (eds), Capitalism in context: essays on economic development and cultural change in honour of R.M. Hartwell. Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1994, pp. 114–137.Google Scholar

81 Slyder, Francis and Hay, Douglas, ‘Introduction’, in Slyder, Francis and Hay, Douglas (eds), Labour, law, and crime. London, Tavistock, 1987, p. 15.Google Scholar

82 Steinfeld, The invention; Postan, Michael, ‘The chronology of labour services’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 20 (1937), pp. 169–193CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

83 Macpherson, Crawford B., The political theory of possessive individualism. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1962.Google Scholar

84 Laslett, Peter, The world we have lost. London, Methuen, 1965.Google Scholar

85 Steinfeld, The invention, pp. 17–22.

86 Hay and Craven, Masters, servants, p. 7.

87 Kussmaul, Ann, ‘The ambiguous mobility of farm servants’, The Economic History Review, 34, 2 (1981), pp. 222–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

88 Deakin and Wilkinson, The law.

89 Woods, ‘The operation’; Barnsby, George, Social conditions in the Black Country. Wolverhampton, Integrated Publishers, 1980Google Scholar.

90 Hay, Douglas and Rogers, Nick, English society in the eighteenth century: shuttles and swords. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997Google Scholar; Douglas Hay, ‘Masters and servants in England: using the law in the eighteenth and nineteenth century’, in Steinmetz, Private law, pp. 227–264.

91 Joanna Innes, ‘Prisons for the poor: English bridewells, 1555–1800’, in Slyder and Hay, Labour, pp. 92–122.

92 Tawney, Richard H., The agrarian problem in the sixteenth century. New York, Harper and Row, 1967, p. 47.Google Scholar

93 Kussmaul, Servants.

94 Hay, ‘Masters and servants’; Craven, Paul and Hay, Douglas, ‘The criminalization of free labour: masters and servants in comparative perspective’, Slavery and abolition, 15, 2 (1994), pp. 71–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

95 Judicial statistics, England and Wales, 1857–1875, 19 volumes, London, 1858–1876, quoted in Steinfeld, Robert, Coercion, contract and free labour in the nineteenth century. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 73–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

96 Douglas Hay, ‘England 1562–1875: the law and its uses’, in Hay and Craven, Masters, servants, p. 67.

97 Hay and Craven, Masters, servants, p. 67.

98 Wood, ‘Operations’, p. 102.

99 Wood, ‘Operations’, p. 107.

100 Hay and Craven, Masters, servants, Introduction.

101 Galenson, White servitude.

102 Steinfeld, The invention.

103 Northrup, Indentured, Table A.1, pp. 156–157.

104 Allen, Slaves, p. 84. Claude Wanquet, ‘Violences individuelles et violence institutionnalisée: le régime servile de l'Ile de France à la fin du XVIIIe siècle à la lumière des dossiers de procédure criminelle’, in Maestri, Esclavage, pp. 203–226.

Gerbeau, Hubert, ‘Les indiens des Mascaraignes. Simples jalons pour l'histoire d'une réussite (XVIle-XXe siècle)’, Annuaire des pays de Indian Ocean, XII (1990–1991), pp. 15–45Google Scholar, Éditions du CNRS/Presses universitaires d'Aix-Marseilles, 1992.

105 Musleem Jumeer, ‘Les affranchissements et les libres à l'ile de France à la fin de l'Ancien Régime, 1768–1789’, PhD thesis, Université de Poitiers, 1979, pp. 24, 54, 105, 212–214.

106 Hubert Gerbeau, ‘Engagees and coolies on Reunion Island: slavery's masks and freedom's constraints’, in Emmer, Colonialism, pp. 209–237; Carter, Servants.

107 Teelock, Vijaya, Bitter sugar: sugar and slavery in nineteenth century Mauritius. Moka, Mahatma Gandhi Institute, 1998.Google Scholar

108 Correspondence concerning the Indian immigration to Mauritius in: Parliamentary Papers, 1840 XXXVII (331), 1842 XXX (26), 1844 XXXV (356 and 530), 1846 XXVIII (691 II). Also TNA CO 167/245, Stanley, 26 July 1843.

109 Allen, Slaves, pp. 16–17. Also Toussaint, Auguste, Histoire de l'ile Maurice. Paris, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 1974Google Scholar.

110 Colony of Mauritius, Annual report, 1854, British parliamentary sessional papers XLII, 2050. Also Breman, Jan, Taming the coolie beast. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1989Google Scholar.

111 Parliamentary Papers, 1841 XVI (45), Petition of the inhabitants of Calcutta.

112 Carter, Servants, p. 3.

113 Satteeanund Peerthum, ‘Le système d'apprentissage à Mauritius 1835–1839: plus esclave mais pas encore libre’, in Maestri, Esclavage, pp. 285–294; Jocelyne Chan-Low, ‘Aux origines du malaise créole? Les ex-apprentis dans la société mauricienne, 1839–1860’, in Maestri, Esclavage, pp. 267–284.

114 Allen, Slaves.

115 Chan-Low, ‘Aux origines’.

116 Parliamentary Papers, 1842 XXXX (26), p. 25.

117 Carter, Servants.

118 Allen, Slaves, p. 60.

119 Parliamentary Papers, 1836 XLIX (166), 1837–38 LII (180); 1840 XXXVII (58); 1847–48 XLVI (250); TNA CO 167/201.

120 Parliamentary Papers, 1837–38 LII (180).

121 Parliamentary Papers, 1837–38 LII (180), 1849 XXXVII (280). Also see Carter, Servants, pp. 162–163.

122 Parliamentary Papers, 1842 XXX (26).

123 TNA CO 167/263. Labour Committee evidence, Appendix A, 22 October 1845. Parliamentary Papers, 1847 XXXIX (325).

124 TNA CO 167/213, 202, 266.

125 ‘Report of the royal commissioners appointed to enquire into the treatment of immigrants in Mauritius’, in British Parliament sessional papers, 1875 XXXIV, para 704, and Appendices A and B. Colony of Mauritius, Printed documents, Annual report of the protector of immigrants, 1860–1885.

126 ‘Report of the royal commissioners’.

127 Allen, Slaves, pp. 69–71.

128 Allen, Slaves, p. 72.

129 Colony of Mauritius, Protector of immigrants.

130 TNA CO 167/252.

131 On this debate, see Stanziani, Alessandro, ‘Free labor-forced labor: an uncertain boundary? The circulation of economic ideas between Russia and Europe from the 18th to the mid-19th century’, Kritika. Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, 9,1 (2008), pp. 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

132 Michael K. Banton, ‘The Colonial Office, 1820–1955: constantly the subject of small struggles’, in Hay and Craven, Masters, servants, pp. 251–302; Cooper, Frederick, ‘From free labour to family allowances: labour and African society in colonial discourse’, American Ethnologist, 16, 4 (1989), pp. 745–765CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Fall, Babacar, Le travail forcé en Afrique occidentale française, 1900–1946. Paris, Karthala, 1993.Google Scholar