Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T09:15:45.943Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Indian City and its ‘Restive Publics’

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 May 2020

DEBJANI BHATTACHARYYA Open the ORCID record for DEBJANI BHATTACHARYYA [Opens in a new window]
DEBJANI BHATTACHARYYA*
Affiliation:
Drexel University Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

How do we write about cities in a world of deepening inequality, real-estate geopolitics, and the planetary water crisis that is unfolding in parts of Asia and elsewhere? Indian urban studies, which began to gain ground as a legitimate subject of scholarly enquiry two decades ago, has now emerged as a site to study political society, state-making, and citizenship, and to offer rich accounts of how post-colonial urban governance and law-making work. In this review, I explore the powerful analytics developed in three recent books in urban studies: Anindita Ghosh's historical work on colonial Calcutta, Claiming the City: Protest, Crime and Scandals in Colonial Calcutta, c. 1860–1920 (2016); Asher Ghertner's geographical analysis of neoliberal Delhi, Rule by Aesthetics: World-Class City Making in Delhi (2015); and Nikhil Anand's ethnographic account of restive publics and citizenship in Mumbai, Hydraulic City: Water and the Infrastructures of Citizenship in Mumbai (2017). This recent scholarship on urbanization has moved away from earlier rubrics of segregation, biopolitical disciplining, and resistance to offer rich accounts of the frictions that make and unmake political societies, critical tools to study the life of law in post-colonial cities, infrastructures as sites for the production of citizenship, and new financial and legal assemblages of risk-management, building lobbies, and syndicates around which urban politics is swirling. These accounts also deepen our understanding of the long genealogy of the contemporary moment, including populism, electoral politics, and post-colonial state-making. Indeed, the future of urban studies in a rapidly urbanizing world should be one that helps us to understand the nature of politics, contestations around legalities, environmental crises, and new financial geographies of power and dispossession.

Type
Review Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 55 , Issue 2 , March 2021 , pp. 665 - 695
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

‘Restive publics’ is a term I draw from Nikhil Anand, Hydraulic City: Water and the Infrastructures of Citizenship in Mumbai (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2017).

References

1 Karen Coelho's work on urban public utilities as ‘anthropomorphic grids’ through which citizenship and sovereignty are constantly negotiated and held together by a patchy network of bureaucrats, engineers, and maintainers remain seminal in this regard. See Coelho, Karen, ‘Unstating “the Public”: An Ethnography of Reform in an Urban Public Sector Utility in South India’, in Mosse, David and Lewis, David (eds), Anthropology Upstream: The Ethnography of Aid Donors and Neoliberal Reform (London: Pluto Press, 2005), pp. 171–195Google Scholar; and Coelho, K., ‘Tapping in: Leaky Sovereignties and Engineered (Dis)Order in an Urban Water System’, in Narula, Monica et al. , Sarai Reader 06: Turbulence (Delhi: Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, 2006), pp. 497–509Google Scholar.

2 While not an attempt at providing an exhaustive list on violence and cities in India, see works by Blom-Hansen, Thomas, Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Baviskar, Amita, ‘Between Violence and Desire: Space, Power, and Identity in the Making of Metropolitan Delhi’, International Social Science Journal 55, no. 175 (2003), pp. 89–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Banerjee-Guha, Swapna, ‘Neoliberalising the “Urban”: New Geographies of Power and Injustice in Indian Cities’, Economic and Political Weekly 44, no. 22 (2009), pp. 95–107Google Scholar; Prakash, Gyan, Mumbai Fables: History of an Enchanted City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011)Google Scholar; and Pandey, Gyanendra, Routine Violence: Nations, Fragments, Histories (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Schwartz, Herman M. and Seabrooke, Leonard, ‘Varieties of Residential Capitalism in the International Political Economy: Old Welfare States and the New Politics of Housing’, in Seabrooke, Leonard and Schwartz, Herman (eds), The Politics of Housing Booms and Busts (London: Palgrave, 2009), pp. 1–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 For an exploration of how this new residential capitalism operates in Delhi, see Dasgupta, Rana, Capital: The Eruption of Delhi (New Delhi: Penguin Press, 2014)Google Scholar; for Kolkata, see Bhattacharyya, Debjani, ‘Politics of Dwelling: Divergent Spaces in Calcutta’, in Dilworth, Richardson and Weaver, Timothy (eds), Role of Ideas in Urban Political Development (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020), pp. 202–14Google Scholar; and for Bombay, see Chhabria, Sheetal, Making the Modern Slum: The Power of Capital in Colonial Bombay (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2019)Google Scholar.

5 In his recent work on the interventions in the zoned areas of the brothel, Steve Legg studied urban spatial politics during the interwar period on a scalar level to understand governance at various levels, from local to state to international. Legg, S., Prostitution and the Ends of Empire: Scale, Governmentality and Interwar India (Raleigh: Duke University Press, 2014)Google Scholar.

6 For some excellent review essays on historical scholarship on South Asian cities, see Beverley, Eric, ‘Colonial Urbanism and South Asian Cities: A Review Essay’, Social History 36, no. 4 (2011), pp. 482–497CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Haynes, Douglas and Rao, Nikhil, ‘Beyond the Colonial City: Re-Evaluating the Urban History of India, ca. 1920–1970’, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 36, no. 3 (2013), pp. 317–335CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nair, Janaki, ‘Beyond Nationalism: Modernity, Governance and a New Urban History for India’, Urban History 36, no. 2 (2009), pp. 327–341CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Chandavarkar, Raj, History, Culture and the Indian City (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Anand, Hydraulic City, p. 7.

8 When I refer to the ‘long’ twentieth century here, I depart from Eric Hobsbawn's theorization of the twentieth century as a short one, with the Second World War and the fall of communism as two critical moments that bookend the century. While these experiences were not at all marginal to South Asia (or the post-colonial world), I regard decolonization as a more useful temporality for understanding the twentieth century for the formerly colonized world. The global economic changes that began at the end of the nineteenth century remade the twentieth century as a period marked by decolonization, economic neo-liberalization, rapid urbanization, and environmental crisis. In recasting the twentieth century in this manner, I have also found it productive to think through Arrighi, Giovanni, The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power and the Origin of our Time (New York: Verso, [1994] 2009)Google Scholar; and Goswami, Manu, Producing India: From Colonial Economy to National Space (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Haynes, Douglas E., ‘Rethinking the Twentieth-Century History of Mumbai’, Modern Asian Studies 48, no. 5 (2014), pp. 1435–1449, p. 1438CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Oldenburg, Veena Talwar, The Making of Colonial Lucknow, 1856–1877 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Like Oldenburg's, Narayani Gupta's work on Delhi deals with the militarization of the city following the 1857 Uprising: Gupta, N., Delhi between Two Empires 1803–1931: Society, Government and Urban Growth (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998)Google Scholar. See also Hazareesingh, Sandip, The Colonial City and the Challenge of Modernity: Urban Hegemonies and Civic Contestations in Bombay City 1900–1925 (New Delhi: Orient Black Swan 2007)Google Scholar; Nair, Janaki, The Promise of the Metropolis: Bangalore's Twentieth Century (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; and Hosagrahar, Jyoti, Indigenous Modernities: Negotiating Architecture and Urbanism (London: Routledge, 2005)Google Scholar.

11 Epidemiological cities continue to produce scholarly and artistic engagement with the urban. See the 2017 exhibition at the Wellcome Trust Library on ‘Drawing the Bombay Plague’, https://wellcomecollection.org/articles/Wju6LCQAACYA5fY7, [accessed 21 April 2020].

12 See Chatterjee, Partha, Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006)Google Scholar, especially Chapter 7 ‘Are Indian Cities becoming Bourgeois at Last?’. See also Dupont, Véronique, Lama-Rewal, Stéphanie Tawa and Zérah, Marie-Hélène, Urban Policies and the Right to the City (Delhi: UNESCO, 2011)Google Scholar.

13 Legg, Steve, Spaces of Colonialism: Delhi's Urban Governmentalities (Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 The CSDS is an institution that remains one of the central mouthpieces on urbanism in India.

15 Collective, Sarai, Sarai Reader 02: Cities of Everyday Life (New Delhi: Center for Studies of Developing Societies, 2002), p. ivGoogle Scholar.

16 Ibid.

17 Banga, Indu, The City in Indian History: Urban Demography, Society, and Politics (New Delhi: South Asia Publications, 1991)Google Scholar; and Banga, I., Ports and their Hinterlands in India (1700–1950) (New Delhi: Manohar Publications, 1992)Google Scholar.

18 Lewandowski, Susan, ‘Changing Form and Function in the Ceremonial and Colonial Port City in India: An Historical Analysis of Madurai and Madras’, Modern Asian Studies 11, no. 2 (1977), pp. 183–212CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Basu, Dilip K (ed.), The Rise and Growth of Colonial Port Cities in Asia, Monograph Series No. 25 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

19 Indian Economic and Social History Review: Special Number on South Indian Temples 14, no. 1 (Jan–March 1977); Stein, Burton, ‘Circulation and the Historical Geography of Tamil Country’, Journal of Asian Studies 37, no. 1 (Nov 1977), pp. 7–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Appadurai, Arjun, ‘Kings, Sects, and Temples in South India 1350–1700 A.D.’, Indian Economic and Social History Review 14, no. 1 (Jan–March 1977), pp. 47–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Lewandowski, Susan, ‘The Hindu Temple in South India’, in King, Anthony D. (ed.), Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment (London: Psychology Press, 1984)Google Scholar.

20 Chaudhuri, Kalyan N., ‘Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India’, Modern Asian Studies 12, no. 1 (1978), pp. 77–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Possehl, Gregory L., Ancient Cities of the Indus (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1979)Google Scholar; and Ray, Amita, Villages, Towns and Secular Buildings in Ancient India (Calcutta: Firma KLM, 1964)Google Scholar.

21 Vidyarthi, Lalitha Prasad, The Sacred Complex of Hindu Gaya (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1961)Google Scholar; Singh, R. L., Benaras: A Study in Urban Geography (Benaras: Nand Kishore Brothers, 1955)Google Scholar; and a more recent study: Eck, Diana, India: A Sacred Geography (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

22 Bose, Nirmal Kumar, ‘Calcutta: A Premature Metropolis’, Scientific American 213, no. 3 (1965), pp. 91–103CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mukherjee, S. N., Calcutta: Myths and History (Calcutta: Firma KLM, 1977)Google Scholar; Sinha, Pradip, Calcutta in Urban History (Calcutta: Firma KLM, 1978)Google Scholar; Chaudhuri, Sukanta, Calcutta a Living City (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; and Sinha, Surajit, Cultural Profile of Calcutta (Calcutta: Indian Anthropological Society, 1972)Google Scholar.

23 Skinner's, G. W. adaptation of Walter Christaller's ‘central place theory’ in Skinner, G. W. (ed.), The Chinese City between Two Worlds (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974)Google Scholar was particularly influential on scholars studying the city as regionally connected to its hinterland. See Gumprez, Ellen McDonald, ‘City-Hinterland Relations and the Development of a Regional Elite in Nineteenth Century Bombay’, Journal of Asian Studies no. 33 (1974), pp. 581–601CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Spodek, Howard, Urban-Rural Integration in Regional Development: A Case Study of Saurashtra, India 1800–1960 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1976)Google Scholar. Other works that deal with urban morphology are: Brush, John E., ‘The Morphology of Indian Cities’, in Turner, Roy (ed.), India's Urban Future (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962), pp. 57–70Google Scholar; and King, Anthony D., Colonial Urban Development: Culture, Social Power and Environment (London: Routledge, 1976)Google Scholar.

24 Spodek, Howard, ‘Studying the History of Urbanization in India’, Journal of Urban History 6, no. 3 (1980), pp. 251–294, p. 254CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Patrick Geddes came to India at the invitation of Lord Pentland in Madras. He then visited and stayed in various cities and princely states, and prepared town-planning and morphology reports. See Tyrwhitt, Jacqueline, Patrick Geddes in India (London: Lund Humphries, 1947)Google Scholar; and Meller, Hellen E., Patrick Geddes: Social Evolutionist and City Planner (London: Routledge, 1975)Google Scholar.

26 See Srinivas, Mysore Narashimachar, ‘The Industrialisation and Urbanisation of Rural Areas’, in Rao, Madhugiri Saroja (ed.), Urban Sociology in India: Reader and Source Book (New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 1974), pp. 488–499Google Scholar.

27 Spodek, Both Howard and Srinivasan, Doris Meth (eds), Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1993)Google Scholar; and King, Anthony, Colonial Urban Development: Culture, Social Power and Environment (London: Routledge, 1976)Google Scholar explain the urban phenomenon through the lens of the village.

28 See, for example, Saberwal, Satish (ed.), Process and Institution in Urban India: Sociological Studies (New Delhi: Vikas, 1978)Google Scholar; and Hoselitz, Bert F., ‘A Survey of the Literature on Urbanism in India’, in Turner, Roy (ed.), India's Urban Future (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1962), pp. 425–443Google Scholar.

29 Racine, Jean (ed.), Calcutta 1981: The City, its Crisis and the Debate on Urban Planning (Delhi: Manohar Publications, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Appadurai, Arjun, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1996)Google Scholar; and Davis, Mike, Planet of Slums (London: Verso, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar explore how these frames have produced a distinct theory of South Asian urban modernity. See Chakrabarty, Dipesh, Habitations of Modernity: Essay in the Wake of Subaltern Studies (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Prakash, Gyan and Kruse, Kevin Michael, The Spaces of the Modern City: Imaginaries, Politics, and Everyday Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Beverley, Eric Lewis, ‘Colonial Urbanism and South Asian Cities’, Social History 36, no. 4 (November 2011), pp. 482–497CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 Prakash, Gyan, Mumbai Fables: History of an Enchanted City (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011)Google Scholar.

32 Oldenburg, The Making of Colonial Lucknow.

33 Bayly, Christopher A., The Local Roots of Indian Politics: Allahabad, 1880–1920 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975)Google Scholar; Bayly, C. A., Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770–1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983)Google Scholar; Haynes, Douglas E., Rhetoric and Ritual in Colonial India: The Shaping of a Public Culture in Surat City, 1852–1928 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Johnson, Gordon, Provincial Politics and Indian Nationalism: Bombay and the Indian National Congress, 1880 to 1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973)Google Scholar; and Masselos, Jim, Towards Nationalism: Group Affiliations and the Politics of Public Associations in Nineteenth Century Western India (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1974)Google Scholar.

34 Glover, William J., Making Lahore Modern (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Hazareesingh, The Colonial City; Kidambi, , The Making of an Indian Metropolis (Abingdon: Ashgate, 2007)Google Scholar; Legg, Spaces of Colonialism; Nair, The Promise of the Metropolis; and Hosagrahar, Indigenous Modernities.

35 Gyan Prakash ‘The Urban Turn’, in Sarai Reader 02: Cities of Everyday Life, pp. 2–7.

36 Kidambi, The Making of the Indian Metropolis, p. 1.

37 For the Delhi Improvement Trust, see Legg, Spaces of Control; and for the Calcutta Improvement Trust, see Datta, Partho, Planning the City: Urbanization and Reform in Calcutta c. 1800–c. 1940 (Delhi: Tulika Books, 2012)Google Scholar.

38 Kidambi, The Making of the Indian Metropolis.

39 King, Anthony, Colonial Urban Development: Culture, Social Power and Environment (London: Routledge, 1976)Google Scholar.

40 Legg's study on Delhi uses a Foucauldian lens of control, discipline, and governmentality to develop geographical models to study spatial control: Legg, ‘Biopolitics and the Urban Environment’, in his Spaces of Colonialism, pp. 149–209.

41 Chattopadhyay's fascinating exploration of Calcutta's culture and indigenous modernity turns away from the British administrative spaces to the wealthy native houses and their architectural ideology: Chattopadhyay, S., Representing Calcutta. Modernism, Nationalism, and the Colonial Uncanny (Abingdon; Routledge, 2006), pp. 136–224Google Scholar.

42 Notions of technocratic planning and its limits have dominated the study of the northwest Indian city Chandigarh. See Kalia, Ravi, Chandigarh: The Making of an Indian City (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; and Prakash, Vikramaditya, Le Corbuiser's Chandigarh: Struggle for Modernity in Postcolonial India (Washington: University of Washington Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

43 Glover, Making Lahore Modern, p. xviii.

44 Ibid., p. xx.

45 Glover shows how Swiss educationist and social reformer Johann Pestalozzi's curriculum of ‘object-lessons’ were imported into the colonial classrooms and gradually adopted into the everyday parlance of colonial life. Ibid., p. xxv.

46 See Chopra, A Joint Enterprise, especially Chapter 1.

47 Chattopadhyay, Representing Calcutta, pp. 1–3.

48 Ibid.

49 For works highlighting hybrid modernity, see Prakash, Le Corbuiser's Chandigarh; Glover, Making Lahore Modern; Hazareesingh, The Colonial City; Kidambi, The Making of an Indian Metropolis; Legg, Spaces of Colonialism; Nair, The Promise of the Metropolis; and Hosagrahar, and Indigenous Modernities.

50 Datta, Planning the City.

51 Ghosh, Anindita, Claiming the City: Protest, Crime and Scandal in Colonial Calcutta c. 1860–1920 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

52 Hull, Mathew, Government of Paper: The Materiality of Bureaucracy in Urban Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

53 Ghosh, Claiming the City, p. 20, see note 52.

54 Ibid., p. 21.

55 Ibid., p. 89.

56 Banerjee, Sumanta, The Parlour and the Street: The Elite and Popular Culture of Nineteenth-Century Calcutta (Calcutta: Seagull Books, 1989)Google Scholar.

57 Ghosh, Claiming the City, p. 104.

58 Ibid., p. 121.

59 Banerjee, Sumanta, Dangerous Outcast: The Prostitute in Nineteenth-Century Bengal (Calcutta: Seagull Books, 1998)Google Scholar; Legg, Stephen, ‘Anti-Vice Lives: Peopling the Archives of Prostitution in Interwar India’, in Pliley, Jessica R., Kramm-Masaoka, Robert and Fischer-Tiné, Harald (eds), Global Anti-Vice Activism, 1890–1950: Fighting Drinks, Drugs, and ‘Immorality’ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016)Google Scholar.

60 Ghosh, Claiming the City, p. 124.

61 Ibid.

62 Ibid., p. 125.

63 Ibid., p. 162.

64 Ibid., p. 293.

65 Chatterjee, Partha, The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

66 For an exception, see Sarkar, Tanika, ‘“Dirty Work, Filthy Caste”: Calcutta Scavengers in the 1920s’, in Ahuja, Ravi (ed.), Working Lives, Worker Militancy: The Politics of Labour in Colonial India (Delhi: Tulika Books, 2013)Google Scholar; and a more recent version: Sarkar, T., ‘Calcutta Municipal Methars and their Strikes in 1928’, Refugee Watch: South Asia Journal on Forced Migration 50 (2017), pp. 30–43Google Scholar.

67 ‘Millennial’ is a transitive descriptor for Ghertner, as it marks the period of transition in Delhi as it moved from a city designed and governed through socialist planning vision to world-class status in 2010.

68 Late Foucault is becoming increasingly influential in South Asian studies, where we see a shift from discourse and discipline to ethics and governmentality. See Heath, Deana and Legg, Stephen, South Asian Governmentalities; Michel Foucault and the Question of Postcolonial Orderings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018)Google Scholar.

69 Prakash, ‘The Urban Turn’, p. 3.

70 Legg, Spaces of Colonialism, pp. 149–209.

71 Tarlo, Emma, Unsettling Memories: Narratives of the Emergency in New Delhi (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

72 Sundaram, Ravi, Pirate Modernity: Delhi's Media Urbanism (London: Routledge, 2010), p. 5Google Scholar.

73 Ayona Dutta explores this in detail in Dutta, A., The Illegal City: Space, Law and Gender in a Delhi Squatter Settlement (Ashgate: Ashgate Publishing Group, 2012)Google Scholar.

74 Ghertner, D. Asher, Rule by Aesthetics: World-Class City Making in Delhi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), p. 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 Ibid., p. 6.

76 Ibid., p. 8. Recent work by Llerna Guiu Searle extends this conversation: see Searle, L. G., Landscapes of Accumulation: Real Estate and the Neoliberal Imagination in Contemporary India (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

77 Ghertner, Rule by Aesthetics, pp. 34–35.

78 Ibid., pp. 42–44.

79 Goldman, Michael, ‘Speculative Urbanism and the Making of the Next World City’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 35, no. 3 (2011), pp. 555–581CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 A recent book on Gurgaon explores the ramifications of this landbank-based urbanization in the region. See Oldenburg, Veena, Gurgaon: From Mythic Village to Millennium City (New Delhi: Harper Collins, 2018)Google Scholar.

81 Ghertner, Rule by Aesthetics, pp. 24–26.

82 Ibid., p. 10.

83 Ibid.

84 Anand, Hydraulic City.

85 Ghertner, Rule by Aesthetics, p. 17.

86 Ibid., pp. 57–66.

87 Saran, Awadhendra, In a City out of Place: Nuisance, Pollution and Dwelling in Delhi c. 1850–2000 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

88 Ghertner, Rule by Aesthetics, p. 86.

89 Björkman, Lisa, ‘Becoming a Slum: From Municipal Colony to Illegal Settlement in Liberalization-Era Mumbai’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 38, no. 1 (2014), pp. 36–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 Ghertner, Rule by Aesthetics, p. 157.

91 Ibid., p. 22 and passim.

92 See especially Karen Coelho, ‘Of Engineers, Rationalities, and Rule: An Ethnography of Neoliberal Reform in an Urban Water Utility in South India’, PhD thesis, University of Arizona, 2004; Gandy, Matthew, ‘Landscapes of Disaster: Water, Modernity, and Urban Fragmentation in Mumbai’, Environment and Planning A 40, no. 1 (2008), pp. 108–130CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Björkman, Lisa, Pipe Politics, Contested Waters: Embedded Infrastructures of Millenial Mumbai (Raleigh, NC: Duke University Press, 2015)Google Scholar.

93 Anand, Hydraulic City, p. 7. Coelho makes a similar argument about water's leakiness. See Coelho, ‘Tapping in’.

94 Anand, Hydraulic City, p. vii.

95 Ibid., p. 10.

96 Ibid., p. vii.

97 Ibid., p. 132.

98 Ibid., p. 11.

99 Ibid., pp. 89–92.

100 Ibid., p. 91.

101 Aakansha Sewa Sangh, Agaaz, Arts Collective CAMP and Nikhil Anand, Ek Dozen Pani (One Dozen Water), 2008, http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/ek-dozen-pani-twelve-stories-passage-water-mumbai-and-its-relation-everyday-lives-films, [accessed 27 March 2020].

102 Anand, Hydraulic City, p. ix.

103 Ibid., p. 7.

104 Ibid., p. 156. For a similar critique of the static division of civil and political society in the case of Mumbai, see McQuarrie, Michael, Fernandes, Naresh and Shepard, Cassim, ‘The Field of Struggle, the Office, and the Flat: Protest and Aspiration in a Mumbai Slum’, Public Culture 25, no. 2, 70 (2013), pp. 315–348CrossRefGoogle Scholar, doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/08992363-2020629.

105 MacFarlane, Colin, Learning the City: Knowledge and Translocal Assemblage (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

106 Anand, Hydraulic City, p. 9.

107 Coelho, ‘Tapping in’.

108 Anand, Hydraulic City, p. 162.

109 Ibid., pp. 165–168.

110 Ibid., p. 189.

111 Ibid., p. 13.

112 Ibid., p. 237.