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Ruthless Manipulation or Benevolent Amnesia? The role of the history of the Fifteen-year War in China's diplomacy towards Japan before the 1982 Textbook Incident*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 May 2016

CHAN YANG Open the ORCID record for CHAN YANG [Opens in a new window]
CHAN YANG*
Affiliation:
Institute for International Studies, Wuhan University, People's Republic of China Email: [email protected]
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Abstract

Exploring how the history of the Fifteen-year War was dealt with in pre-1982 mainland China is an essential step towards understanding the currently explosive Sino-Japanese History Problem; furthermore, this might shed light on various issues in the post-war history of China and Sino-Japanese relations. However, available research on the pre-1982 period is scarce and problematic. Earlier political scientists argue that the history of the war was ruthlessly manipulated by the Chinese Communist Party regime, while some recent studies believe that the war was conveniently ‘forgotten’ as Sino-Japanese friendship was vital for the government of the People's Republic of China. This article aims at providing an accurate and thorough picture of how the history of the Fifteen-year War was positioned in the diplomatic practice of the Chinese Communist Party regime in relation to Japan during the period.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 50 , Issue 5 , September 2016 , pp. 1705 - 1747
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

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Footnotes

*

There are different names and periodizations for the second Sino-Japanese war: in China people normally call it the War of Resistance against Japan (Kang Ri zhanzheng, 1937–1945), or the Fourteen-year War (Shisinian zhanzheng, 1931–1945); in Japan, it has several names, such as the Great East Asia War (Daitoua sensou, 1941–1945), the Fifteen-year War (Juugonen sensou, 1931–1945), and Pacific War (Taiheiyou sensou, 1941–1945). This article will mainly use ‘Fifteen-year War’ but will also use different names for the war according to the context.

References

1 The Textbook Incident occurred when the ‘governments of the PRC [People's Republic of China] and the Republic of Korea, among others, angrily upbraided the Japanese government for allegedly attempting to rewrite the history of World War Two’ in Japanese school textbooks. See Fogel, J. A. (2000). Book Review, Journal of Japanese Studies, 26, p. 518 Google Scholar. For more information on the Textbook Incident, see Pyle, B. K. (1983). Japan Besieged: The Textbook Controversy: Introduction, Journal of Japanese Studies, 9, pp. 297–300 Google Scholar; Rose, C. (1998). Interpreting history in Sino-Japanese relations: a case study in political decision-making, Routledge, London Google Scholar; Beal, T., Nozaki, Y. and Yang, J. (2001). Ghosts of the Past: The Japanese History Textbook Controversy, New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies, 3, pp. 177–188 Google Scholar; Hasegawa, T. and Togo, K. (2008). East Asia's Haunted Present: Historical Memories and the Resurgence of Nationalism, Praeger Security International.

2 Chanlett-Avery, E. and Nanto, D. K. (2006). The Rise of China and its Effect on Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea: U.S. Policy Choices, CRS Report for Congress. Iriye, A. (1990). Sino-Japan Relations 1945–1990, The China Quarterly, 124, pp. 624–638 Google Scholar. Rose, Interpreting history; Yang, D. (2002). ‘Mirror for the future or the history card? Understanding the “history problem”, in Söderberg, Marie (ed.), Chinese-Japanese relations in the twenty-first century: complementarity and conflict, Routledge, London Google Scholar; Whiting, A. S. (1989). China eyes Japan, University of California Press, Berkeley Google Scholar.

3 Johnson, C. (1986). The Patterns of Japanese Relations with China, 1952–1982, Pacific Affairs, 59, pp. 402–428 Google Scholar; Ijiri, H. (1990). Sino-Japanese Controversy since the 1972 Diplomatic Normalisation, The China Quarterly, 124, pp. 639–661 Google Scholar.

4 Reilly, J. (2011). Remember History, Not Hatred: Collective Remembrance of China's War of Resistance to Japan, Modern Asian Studies, 45:2, pp. 463–490 Google Scholar, at p. 469; Reilly, J. (2004). China's History Activists and the War of Resistance Against Japan: History in the Making, Asian Survey, 19, pp. 276–294 Google Scholar.

5 He, Y. (2007). Remembering and Forgetting the War: Elite Mythmaking, Mass Reaction, and Sino-Japanese Relations, 1950–2006, History and Memory, 19:2 (Fall/Winter), pp. 43–74 Google Scholar; He, Y. (2008). Ripe for Cooperation or Rivalry? Commerce, Realpolitik, and War Memory in Contemporary Sino-Japanese Relations, Asian Security, 4:2, pp. 162–197 Google Scholar; He, Y. (2009). The search for reconciliation: Sino-Japanese and German-Polish relations since World War II, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Google Scholar.

6 Kosuge, N. (2005). Sengo wakai, Chuukou shinsho, Tokyo, p. 178 Google Scholar.

7 The phrase ‘benevolent amnesia’ originated in Reilly, Remember History, Not Hatred, p. 468.

8 See, Meisner, M. (1999). Mao's China and after: a history of the People's Republic, Free Press New York, New York Google Scholar; Yim, K. H. (1980). China since Mao, Macmillan, London Google Scholar; Kau, M. Y. M. and Marsh, S. H. (1993). China in the era of Deng Xiaoping: a decade of reform, M. E. Sharpe Inc., Armonk, New York.Google Scholar

9 In fact, Chiang Kai-shek also emphasized the distinction between cruel Japanese militarists and Japanese civilians during and after the war. See Huang, T. (2004). Chiang Kai-shek in East Asia: The Origins of the Policy of Magnanimity toward Japan after World War II, Bulletin of the Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, 45, pp. 143–194 Google Scholar. The distinction between the evil fascists and ordinary people in fascist-controlled countries was also emphasized by the Allies’ post-war tribunals.

10 Niu argues that China's diplomacy evolved directly from the Chinese Communist Party's diplomatic conduct during the ‘revolutionary years’ before October 1949. See Niu, J. (2010). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo duiwai guanxi shigailun [An introduction to the PRC's international relations] (1949–2000), Beijingdaxue chubanshe, Beijing Google Scholar.

11 This part—an analysis of what Chinese Communist Party leaders might have been thinking—is based on Liu's excellent study about (1) the Chinese Communist Party's idea and experience of ‘Japanese people’ before 1949; (2) the Chinese Communist Party's idea of post-war ‘Japanese people’; and (3) the ‘continuity of history’. See Liu, J. (2010). Zhanhou Zhong Ri guanxi ‘buzhengchang’ lishide guocheng yujiegou [Sino-Japanese relations after World War II: abnormal historical process and construction], Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, Beijing Google Scholar.

12 ‘Zai Yanan fanqinlve dahuishang deyanshuo’ [Speech at the anti-invasion assembly in Yanan] (21 January 1938), in Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu and Zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (1994). Mao Zedong waijiao wenxuan [Selected diplomatic works of Mao Zedong], Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, Beijing. The Chinese Communist Party leaders believed, similarly to the Chinese people, that the Japanese would be ‘against the Japanese imperialism invasion war from the standpoint of internationalism and against Japanese militarist politics from the standpoint of democracy’. See Liu, Zhanhou Zhong Ri guanxi, pp. 36–49.

13 For example, Japanese communist leader Nozaka Sanzo secretly came to Yanan in 1940 where he organized the Japanese League Against War, passed on knowledge about Japan to the Chinese Communist Party cadres, helped draw up strategy to fight against the Japanese imperial army, and so on. See Liu, Zhanhou Zhong Ri guanxi.

14 See Mao Zedong's conversation with Japanese delegates: ‘Zhong Ri guanxi heshijie dazhan wenti’ [Sino-Japanese relations and the issues about world war] (15 October 1955) and ‘Riben renmin douzhengde yingxiang shishenyuande’ [The impact of Japanese people's struggle is profound] (24 January 1955), in Mao Zedong waijiao wenxuan.

15 ‘Meidiguozhuyi shi Zhong Ri liang guo renminde gongtong diren’ [The American imperialist is the common enemy of Chinese and Japanese people] (21 June 1960), in Mao Zedong waijiao wenxuan, p. 438.

16 ‘Zhong Ri guanxi heshijie dazhan wenti’, in Mao Zedong waijiao wenxuan, p. 226.

17 The get-together was sponsored by the China-Japan Friendship Association, the All China Youth Federation, and the All China Student Federation, as well as the Japan-China Friendship Association, and many other ‘friendly’ Japanese groups. The Japanese delegation consisted not only of leftists, but also neutralists and some rightists.

18 Other aims were to introduce China's revolutionary situation and Maoist theory to the guests and to show China's achievements in agriculture, industry, and education as well as the new ideological outlook of Chinese youths. Nanjing Municipal Archives (NMA)-6002-2-255: ‘Jiedai “Zhong Ri qingnian youhao dalianhuan Riben qingnian daibiaotuan jihua caoan”’ [Draft plan about receiving a Japanese delegation for the ‘Sino-Japanese Youth Friendship Get-together’] (27 June 1965).

19 The facts were mentioned in various articles published at the time in Renmin Ribao and Xinhua Ribao. Renmin Ribao (People's Daily) is an organ of the Chinese Communist Party and Xinhua Ribao (Xinhua Daily) is an official newspaper of Jiangsu Province.

20 Most Chinese research on early post-war Sino-Japanese relations mentions these events to varying degrees. There are also a few Japanese accounts: see Endo, K. (2009). ‘Bukkyou kouryuu tsuuji, Nicchuu yuukou ni jinryoku’ [Devote myself to Sino-Japanese friendship through Buddhism exchange], Watashi to Chugoku, 8 (August). Compared to the 1965 get-together, the event held in 1966 attracted much more attention from the media. The 1965 get-together was only briefly mentioned by the left-leaning Asahi Shinbun: see, for example, ‘Pekin Nitsuku Nicchu Seinen Yokono 270jin’ [Sino-Japanese Youth Friendship's 270 people arrive at Beijing], 24 August 1965. The 1966 event, and especially the struggle over the passport-issuing problem between the people who wanted to attend the event and the Japanese government, however, was closely followed by Asahi Shinbun.

21 The ‘three-all’ policy was adopted in China by the Japanese during the Fifteen-year War and refers to ‘kill all, burn all, loot all’.

22 Note: in this article, all quoted texts, which are originally in Chinese or Japanese, have been translated by the author. NMA-6002-2-255: ‘Guanyu Zhong Ri qingnian youhao dalianhuan xiang qunzhong jinxing xuanchuan jiaoyu de yijian’ [Advice about educating the masses about the Sino-Japanese Youth Friendship Get-together] (21 August 1965).

23 A conference for preparing the forthcoming reception work was held from 23 to 25 August. Four hundred and twenty cadres and citizen representatives participated in this conference. The citizens passed on their complaints at this conference. NMA-6002-2-255: ‘Zhong Ri qingnian youhao dalianhuan qingkuang jiangbao diwuqi’ [Bulletin for the Sino-Japanese Youth Friendship Get-together issue (5)] (25 August 1965).

24 This story is recorded differently by different people. This is based on NMA-6002-1-25: ‘Guanyu Zhong Ri qingnian youhao dalianhuan zai Nanjing huodong dezongjie baogao’ [Summary of the activities of the Sino-Japanese Youth Friendship Get-together in Nanjing] (30 November 1965–10 January 1966). For other records, see NMA-6002-2-256: ‘Laochuangong jiexian fenming’ [The old boatman has a clear ideological boundary] (18 December 1965), and Guan, Z. (2005). ‘Kawaranu yonjyuunen no youjyou’ [Friendship that has lasted for 40 years], Jinmin Chugoku, 8.

25 How ‘The Red Lantern’ reflected Chinese people's hatred towards wartime Japan is also discussed by Hughes, C. (2008). Japan in the Politics of Chinese Leadership Legitimacy: Recent Developments in Historical Perspectives, Japan Forum, 20, pp. 245–266 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 NMA-6002-2-256: ‘Ri qingxieting Nanjing datusha jieshao defanying’ [The reaction of the Japanese Association of Youths after hearing the introduction on the Nanjing Massacre] (16 December 1965).

27 NMA-6002-2-255: ‘Zhong Ri qingnian youhao dalianhuan qingkuang jianbao dishiqiqi’ [Bulletin for the Sino-Japanese Youth Friendship Get-together issue (17)] (8 September 1965).

28 NMA-6002-2-257: ‘Riben diguozhuyi zai Nanjing datusha dezuixing’ [Crimes committed by the Japanese imperialists during the Nanjing Massacre] (December 1965).

29 NMA-6002-2-225: ‘Zhong Ri qingnian youhao dalianhuan jianbao diershijiuqi’ [Bulletin for the Sino-Japanese Youth Get-together issue (29)] (12 September 1965).

30 Some of the delegates were also told of Japanese wartime atrocities by their families back in Japan. NMA-6002-2-256: ‘Waibindui Riben diguo zhuyi zai Nangjing datusha zuixing baogao, fanying qianglie’ [Foreign guests reacted strongly after hearing the report about the Nanjing Massacre] (16 December 1965).

31 The whole paragraph is based on NMA-6002-1-25.

32 Some Japanese youths were taken to the Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution in Beijing. An article reporting this event also made this point and claimed that the Japanese youths gained a clearer understanding of the crimes perpetrated by the Japanese imperial army thanks to the Museum's displays about the war. It also reported that some delegates declared that they would smash the American plot to revive Japanese militarism and would not take part in any war of aggression. Anonymous. (1965). China and Japan: Young People Cement Their Friendship, China Reconstructs, 11, pp. 14–15.

33 NMA-6002-1-25, p. 6.

34 Asahi Shinbun, ‘Homusho Hukokano Hoshin’ [The Ministry of Justice's Line of No Permission], 8 September 1966. The leftist behaviour of those who returned from the 1965 get-together, as shown in the text, was one of the reasons why the Japanese Ministry of Justice was firmly against Japanese participating in the 1966 get-together.

35 A photo in Xinhua Ribao from 4 September 1965 captures the atmosphere of the ceremony to some extent. It shows three very characteristic banners hanging in the rostrum, bearing the slogans: ‘Global people's struggle against imperialism will certainly triumph!’, ‘Ceremony for celebrating the 20th anniversary of winning the great Anti-Japanese War’, and ‘The victory of People's War long live!’.

36 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Renmin zhanzheng shengli wansui’ [The victory of People's War long live!], 3 September 1965. All four pages were used to carry the accompanying articles.

37 The articles signalled a change in the Chinese Communist Party's view about the war: from initially heavily attributing Chinese V-J day to assistance from the Soviet Union, to attributing the victory solely to Chinese people after the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s and emphasizing the significance of the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party as well as Maoist theory. Other messages were also included in these articles, for example, ‘Since we won the war against Japanese militarists we must be able to overthrow American imperialists, Soviet revisionists and their running dogs.’

38 For examples of Xinhua Ribao articles, see ‘Shouzhan Pingxingguan’ [First battle in Pingxing Pass], 11 August 1965; ‘Kangkai bei geshang zhanchang’ [Sing a sad song fervently and go to the battlefield], 15 August 1965; ‘Yimeng kaige’ [The song of triumph in Yimeng], 20 August 1965; ‘Tongchou dikai fansaodang’ [Share the same hatred and fight against mop-up action], 22 August 1965; ‘Renmin zhanzheng weiliwuqiong’ [The power of the People's War is limitless], 28 August 1965; ‘Yexi Yangmingbao budui’ [The army made a night assault on Yangmingbao], 1 September 1965; ‘Huanghai nutao’ [Raging billows of the Yellow Sea], 5 September 1965. For examples of books, see those published by Jiangsu People's Publisher for this occasion: Huaiyin bashier lieshi [Eighty-two martyrs in Huaiyin]; Kang Ri zhanzheng gequxuan [Collection of Anti-Japanese War themed songs]; Yehuo chunfeng dougucheng [Struggles in an ancient city].

39 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Yanmenguan fuji’ [Ambush in Yanmen Pass], 13 August 1965.

40 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Zhongyang renmin guangbo diantai bosong youxiu jiemu jinian weida kang Ri zhanzheng shengli ershi zhou nian’ [Central people's radio station broadcasts outstanding programmes to commemorate the 20th anniversary of winning the great Anti-Japanese War], 19 August 1965; Xinhua Ribao, ‘Youdiangbu faxing kang Ri zhanzheng shengli ershi zhounian jinian youpiao’ [Ministry of Post and Telegraphs issues commemorative stamps for the 20th anniversary of the victory of Anti-Japanese War], 4 September 1965.

41 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Jinian kang Ri zhanzheng shengli ershizhounian sheyingmeishu zhanlan zaishoudu kaimu’ [Commemorate the 20th anniversary of winning the Anti-Japanese War: exhibition of arts and photo inaugurates in Beijing], 23 August 1965.

42 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Jinian weida kang Ri zhanzheng shenli ershizhounian zhanlanhui zuokaimu’ [Exhibition to commemorate the 20th anniversary of winning the great Anti-Japanese War inaugurated yesterday], 30 August 1965.

43 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Nanjing moubuduishi zhanlan’ [Exhibition of a Nanjing unit's army history], 25 August 1965.

44 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Guanggao’ [Advertisement], 13 August 1965; Xinhua Ribao, ‘Jinian kang Ri zhanzheng shengli ershi zhounian wenhuabu dengdanwei jiangjuban gezhong wenyi huodong’ [Ministry of Culture will organise various artistic activities to commemorate the 20th anniversary of winning the Anti-Japanese War], 15 August 1965.

45 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Nanjing gejie qingnian shenghui huanying Riben qingnianpengyou’ [Youths in Nanjing hold ceremonies to welcome Japanese youth friends], 9 September 1965; Xinhua Ribao, ‘Dianying zhanlan kang Ri gequyanchang dengwenyi huodong’ [Film exhibition and concert of the Anti-Japanese War themed songs and so forth], 9 September 1965. A similar example are those articles about the get-togethers and commemorative activities that were included in the same issue of China Reconstructs, a Chinese propaganda magazine targeting foreign readers. See, for example, Anonymous. (1965). ‘Young people cement their friendship’ and Anonymous. ‘Commemorating the People's War’, China Reconstructs, 11.

46 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Nanjing guanzhong yongyue guankan ‘renmin zhanzheng shengli wansui’ [Nanjing audiences swarmed to watch ‘Long Live the Victory of People's War’], 10 September 1965.

47 Renmin Ribao’s search engine was used to identify articles with titles that included ‘Rikou’ and ‘junguo zhuyi’. However, as ‘junguo zhuyi’ was also used to label other nations like the Soviet Union, I then selected only articles that related to Japan.

48 See, for example, Renmin Ribao articles: ‘Jiangzei goujie Meidi Rikou dagao zousishengyi zhu Mei jingji qinhua’ [Chiang Kai-Shek the thief colludes with American imperialists and Japanese bandits, undertaking excessive smuggling and helping America invade China through economic means], 30 September 1947; ‘Jiangzhengfu wushikangzhan cantong mei Mei qin Ri jingtongguo huifudui Ri maoyi fujiang quanbugongye zhuquan maigei ta Meiguo baba’ [Chiang Kai-Shek government ignores the pain of the Anti-Japanese War and colludes with America and Japan, selling its industrial sovereignty to its American father through resuming trade with Japan], 4 August 1947.

49 See, for example, Renmin Ribao articles: ‘Riben peichangwuzi kaishi yunhua sidajiazu hanrandutun’ [Japanese reparations start being transferred to China; the four big families outrageously take everything], 22 February 1947; ‘Guomindang yong gaoguanhoulu shouliu Rikou tusha tongbao’ [The Kuomintang bribes Japanese bandits to kill fellow countrymen], 22 September 1946.

50 See, for example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Zhong Su maoyi tiaoyue dada bangzhule Zhongguo kangzhan dangshi Meiguoque jijizi Ri qinhua’ [Sino-Soviet trade treaty helped China resist Japan while the United States helped Japan invade China], 26 June 1948.

51 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Yuandong guojifating shangdeguaiju’ [The strange drama in the International Military Tribunal for the Far East], 2 August 1946; ‘Jiefangjun baohu shoufa waiqiao, danduipeihe Rikou canhai renminde zhanfan jue yuyi yingdezhicai’ [The PLA (People's Liberation Army) protects law-abiding foreigners, but will punish the war criminals who cooperated with Japanese bandits to harm Chinese people], 4 August 1946.

52 In the view of the Chinese media, North Korea joined the Soviet Union as another of China's friends during the war. See, for example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Zhong Chao renmin zaidongbei kang Ri zhanzheng zhongde guojizhuyi tuanjie’ [Internationalist solidarity between Chinese and Korean people in northeastern China during the Anti-Japanese War], 11 November 1950.

53 Mao Zedong waijiao wenxuan, p. 122.

54 See, for example, ‘Zhou Enlai waizhang guanyu Meiguo jiqi pucongguojia qianding Jiujinshandui Riheyue desheng ming’ [Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai's statement about that the United States and its satellite countries that signed the San Francisco Treaty] (18 September 1951), and ‘Zhang Hanfu fuwaizhang guanyu Riben Jitianzhengfu xiang Meiguozhengfu baozhengyu Guomindang fan dong canyu jituandijie heyuede shengming’ [Vice Foreign Minister Zhang Hanfu's statement about the fact that the Japanese Yoshida government promised the American government it would sign a peace treaty with the remaining Kuomintang reactionary group] (23 January 1952)’, in Shijiezhishi chubanshe. (1955). Ribenwenti wenjian huibian (1) [Compilation of documents of Japanese issue 1], Shijiezhishi chubanshe, Beijing.

55 In fact, the Japanese government's close ties with the United States and the Republic of China also precluded it from having a friendly relationship with the Chinese Communist Party regime.

56 Officials’ speeches of denouncement and victims’ accusations started being published in Renmin Ribao in March 1950. Publication ceased gradually in December of that year. For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Feng Wenbing Liao Chengzhi Xie Bangding fabiaotanhua tongchi Meidi baobi Rikou zuixing’ [Feng Wenbin, Liao Chengzhi and Xie Bangding give a speech to rebuke American imperialists’ crime of shielding Japanese bandits], 16 April 1950; Renmin Ribao, ‘Rehe Shanxi Gansu dengdi renmin kangyi Maimo shifang zhanfan Chongguangkui Riben zhanfan manshen qintoule Zhongguo renminde xianxue women juebuyunxu Maimo yishoutumo zhebixuezhai’ [People in places like Rehe, Shanxi, and Gansu protest against the release of Shigemitsu Mamoru by MacArthur the demon: Japanese criminals’ hands are stained by the blood of Chinese people; we will never allow MacArthur the demon to erase this blood debt], 29 November 1950.

57 There were plenty of articles carried in Chinese newspapers like Xinhua Ribao and Renmin Ribao during this period. For a good work on this campaign, based on archive research, see Cathcart, A. and Nash, P. (2009). ‘To Serve Revenge for the Dead’: Chinese Communist Responses to Japanese War Crimes in the PRC Foreign Ministry Archive, 1949–1956, The China Quarterly, 200, p. 1053 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 See, for example, Renmin Ribao articles: ‘Kangyi qin Chao Meijun goujie Ribenzhanfan jinxing xijun zhanzhen’ [Against American invading troops colluding with Japanese war criminals to conduct biological warfare in Korea], 1 March 1952; ‘Liudianxiang nongmin juxing dahui kongsu Rikou zaigaidi tusha wosiqian tongbao dezuixing’ [Farmers in Liudian county assembled to accuse Japanese bandits of the crime of killing around 4,000 people in the area], 8 July 1952.

59 See, for example, Renmin Ribao articles: ‘Jianyi chuban Rikou baoxing zhaopian zhuanji’ [Suggest publishing a photo album to reveal Japanese bandits’ atrocities], 25 February 1951; ‘Wurenqu’ he “wurenquan”—huiyi Rikou “jijia bingcun’ dexuexing baoxing”’ [‘No Man district’ and ‘No Man circle’—recollect Japanese bandits’ bloody atrocity of ‘merging families and villages’], 28 February 1951; ‘Xuede jiyi you xin tidao Riben yeshou wojiu hongleyan Renmin jiefangjun zhanshide Kongsu’ [The memory of blood is still vivid; my eyes become red immediately when the Japanese beast is mentioned—accusation from a People's Liberation Army solider], 14 March 1951.

60 NMA-6001-1-11: ‘Benshi gongren kang Mei yuan Chao yundong degaikuang yudangqian gongzuode jige wenti’ [The general situation about the mobilization movement of this city's workers for the Korea war and several problems of the current job] (26 February 1951).

61 Renmin Ribao, ‘Ying yindao renmin choushi Meidiguozhuyi’ [We should guide the people to hate American imperialists], 22 April 1951. This article asserted that ‘The hatred towards Japan prevails among people, as Japanese bandits had invaded China for eight years and the whole of China was trampled on. Thus, when one mentions the phrase “against the re-armament of Japan”, people are inclined to focus their hatred towards past Japanese bandits.’ The article suggested that the people should be guided to ‘transfer their hatred from past Japanese bandits to present American imperialists’ and ‘participate in practical struggles, like assisting in the Korean War, cracking down on anti-revolutionaries and increasing production’.

62 See, for example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Zhaodongxian renmin yi shiji xingdong fandui Meiguo wuzhuang Riben’ [People in Zhaodong county protest against American rearmament of Japan through actions], 4 May 1951. The intention of this article was to report on the radio the activity of citizens who accused imperial Japan of atrocities. Nevertheless, it responded to the direction above and described how recollecting Japanese atrocities improved the efficiency of a paper-making factory.

63 Note: to get a better sense of the Chinese perspective, this article's discussion about Sino-Japanese relations is based largely on mainland Chinese scholars’ research as well as official Chinese documents. A few indirect and direct trades between China and Japan were interrupted by the American-led embargo on China during the Korean War. Some Japanese Communist Party members also visited China during the period to negotiate the repatriation issue or take political refuge. Liu, Zhanhou Zhong Ri guanxi; Zhang, L. (2011). Xin Zhongguo yu Riben guanxishi (1949–2010) [History of relations between new China and Japan], Shanghai renmin chubanshe, Shanghai Google Scholar.

64 ‘Shijiezhishi chubanshe. (1950). Shijie zhishi cidian [World knowledge dictionary], Shijiezhishi chubanshe, Beijing Google Scholar.

65 For example, the last article in Xinhua Ribao to criticize Japanese atrocities during the first phase of Japanese militarist-bashing is: Xinhua Ribao, ‘Duzhe laixin’ [Letters column], 19 October 1952. The letter talked about the Nanjing Massacre and the conference.

66 For the part played by the Chinese Communist Party's policy change, see Liu, Zhanhou Zhong Ri guanxi.

67 ‘Zhonghua renmingongheguo zhengfuhe Suweiai shehuizhuyi gongheguo lianbang guanyudui Riben guanxide lianhexuan yan’ [Sino-Soviet joint statement about relations with Japan] (12 October 1954), in Riben wenti wenjian huibian (1) [Compilation of documents of Japanese issue (1)], Shijiezhishi chubanshe, Beijing.

68 ‘Lun Riben he Zhongguo huifu zhengchang guanxi’ [Talk about Sino-Japanese normalisation] (30 December 1954), in Riben wenti wenjian huibian (1) [Compilation of documents of Japanese issue (1)], Shijiezhishi chubanshe, Beijing.

69 ‘Zhou Enlai zongli tong Riben jizhe tan Zhong Ri guanxi’ [Prime Minister Zhou Enlai talks about the Sino-Japanese relationship with Japanese journalists] (25 July 1957), in Riben wenti wenjian huibian (2) (1958) [Compilation of documents of Japanese issue (2)], Shijiezhishi chubanshe, Beijing.

70 For the association of the fourth trade agreement negotiation with the Liu Lianren incident, see Liu, Zhanhou Zhong Ri guanxi.

71 See articles in Renmin Ribao and China Reconstructs during this time.

72 On 2 May 1958 a group of Japanese right-wingers pulled down a Chinese flag hanging outside an exhibition of Chinese merchandise in Nagasaki.

73 China ceased relations with Japan after the incident. It was not until March 1959 that the Chinese Communist Party regime started to publicly show that its stance had changed, when a Japanese Socialist Party delegation led by Asanuma Inejiro visited China. China suggested the famous three principles of Sino-Japanese economics during the meeting. ‘Zhongguo renmin waijiao xuehuihuizhang Zhang Xiruo, Riben Shehuidang fanghua daibiaotuan tuanzhang Qianzhao Daocilang gongtong shengming’ [Joint statement agreed by Zhang Xiruo, the president of the Chinese diplomacy society, and Asanuma, the chief of Japanese socialist delegation] (17 March 1959), in Riben wenti wenjian huibian (3) (1961) [Compilation of documents of Japanese issue (3)], Shijiezhish chubanshe, Beijing; Zhang, Xin Zhongguo yu Riben guanxishi.

74 Nanjing Ribao (an official Nanjing newspaper), ‘Liao Chengzhi tongzhizai shoudugejie zhiyuan Riben renmin zhengyi douzheng dahuishang dejianghua’ [Comrade Liao Chengzhi's speech at the meeting in Beijing], 10 May 1960.

75 See Nanjing Ribao, ‘Quanguo yiyou jinjiubaiwanren jihuishihui zhiyuan Riben renmin zhengyi douzheng’ [Around nine million people nationwide participated in the assembly and demonstration to support Japanese people's justice struggle], 15 May 1960. The article reads: Chinese people, ‘who used to be oppressed by the Japanese fascist, including the farmers in Marco Polo Bridge, survivors of the Nanjing Massacre, victims who escaped from under piles of corpses buried by the Japanese, participated in demonstrations and assemblies’.

76 NMA-5003-3-788: ‘Zhiyuan Riben renmin fandui Ri Mei junshitongmeng tiaoyue dahuijihua caoan’ [Draft plan for the assembly to support Japanese people and protest against the Japan-American Security Treaty] (9 May 1960).

77 Nanjing Ribao, ‘Nanjing sishiduowanren juxing dashiwei’ [About 400,000 Nanjing citizens have demonstrated], 14 May 1960. Note: since the rally occurred during the Great Leap Forward period, the numbers reported might be an exaggeration.

78 NMA-5003-3-788.

79 Nanjing Ribao, ‘Zijinshang xiade housheng’ [Roar at the foot of Purple mountain], 14 May 1960.

80 For example, Xinhua Ribao, ‘Wotiqian shifang wuming Riben zhanfan’ [We release five Japanese war criminals ahead of schedule], 4 September 1963; Renmin Ribao, ‘Tiqian shifang zuihousanmin Riben zhanfan’ [Release of the last three Japanese war criminals ahead of schedule], 7 March 1964.

81 Still, a few articles reported North Korea's criticism of resurgent Japanese militarism and China's commemoration of the people who died during the war, for example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Chaoxian minzhu falvjia xiehui lishu Riben diguozhuyi qin Chao zuixing’ [A Korean association of democratic law experts has listed several Japanese imperialists’ crimes of invading Korea], 26 March 1964; Renmin Ribao, ‘Dongbei xianhouyou wushiduo wanrendao Fangjiafen pindiao “Wanrenken” daonian Riben diguozhuyi qinlve shiqi sinankuanggong’ [500,000 northeastern people went to Fangjia Cemetery to ponder on the ‘ten-thousand-corpse pit’ and mourn the miners who died during the period of the Japanese imperialist invasion], 8 April 1964.

82 There were mainly two ‘time bombs’: the second Yoshida Letter to Taiwan and the Mitsuya Plan.

83 For evidence reported in the previous two phases, see, Renmin Ribao, ‘Zhanqian Riben zuidade junguozhuyi zuzhi “Riben zai xiang junrenhui” kaishi huodong’ [The biggest wartime Japanese militarist organization ‘Association of Soldiers who are not on Active Duty’ start limbering up again], 14 August 1952; Renmin Ribao, ‘Liyong jiaoyu he xuanchuan guanshudusu’ [Use education and propaganda to instil poisonous ideas], 27 December 1959; Renmin Ribao, ‘Riben junguozhuyi fenzi jingwei Dongtiaodeng jian jinianbei’ [Japanese militarists build memorials for people like Tojo Hideki], 19 August 1960.

84 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Buzhun Riben junguozhuyi jieshihuanhun’ [Reviving Japanese militarism in a new guise is forbidden], 7 July 1971. For examples of special columns, see a series of critical articles published in Renmin Ribao on 29 January 1971: ‘Riben fandongpai liyong xinnian dasifangdu’ [Japanese reactionaries [who] use the New Year to spread poisonous ideas]; ‘Zhanlan bingqi guchui kuozhangqinlve’ [Display weapons to advocate expansion and invasion]; ‘Jisishengui weiqinlvejun zhaohun’ [Hold rites to call back the soul of the dead militarists]; and ‘Guangbo junge xuanyang duwu jingshen’ [Broadcast military songs to preach a warlike spirit].

85 Xin Nanjing Ribao, ‘Riben junguozhuyi quanmian fuhuode zuizheng’ [Evidence of an overall revival of Japanese militarism], 19 August 1970. (Xin Nanjing Ribao was published as a replacement for Nanjing Ribao for a while.)

86 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Liyong chubanwu, dianyinghe gequdeng dasixuanyang junguozhuyi’ [Using publications, films and songs to advocate militarism], 29 August 1970; Renmin Ribao, ‘Ping Riben fandongyingpian “A, haijun”’ [Review of Japanese reactionary film ‘Aa, kaigun’] 20 July 1971; The book is: Qin, P. and Tao, D. (1971). Jisui Mei Ri fandongpaide mimeng [Strike the delusional dream of American and Japanese reactionaries], Renmin chubanshe, Beijing Google Scholar.

87 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Zuoteng zhengfu jinzai Riben touxiang ershizhounian dasi xuanchuan junguozhuyi shandong fuchouzhuyi’ [Sato government stirred up militarism and revanchism on the 20th anniversary of the end of the war], 20 August 1965; Renmin Ribao, ‘Zuoteng fandong zhengfu liyong “jiyuanjie” shandong junguozhuyi kuangre’ [Sato reactionary government used ‘kigensetsu’ to stir up militarist fanaticism], 1 March 1971. Kigensetsu was Empire Day in imperial Japan and was abolished during the American occupation. It was revived as National Foundation Day in 1966 as a national holiday.

88 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Pizhunchuban dierci shijiedazhan shide xiaoxuejiaokeshu bing jielixiugai xianxing’ [Authorise the publication of the wartime primary school textbook and revise the current primary school textbook], 28 June 1969.

89 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Riben fandongpai weierbaiwan “zhanwangzhe” zhaohun’ [Japanese reactionaries call back the souls of two million war dead], 14 January 1971; Renmin Ribao, ‘Riben fandong pai jinggei qiming jiaji zhanfan kai'zhuidaohui’ [Japanese reactionaries hold a mourning ceremony for seven Japanese Class A war criminals], 11 June 1971.

90 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Riben fandongpai litu huifu “tianhuangzhi”’ [Japanese reactionaries attempted to restore the emperor], 1 June 1971; Renmin Ribao, ‘Sandaoyoujifu yinhun busan’ [Mishima Yukio's soul is still haunting], 20 February 1971.

91 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Latiemoer shuo Meizhengfu suozuosuowei tongsanshiniandai Riben yiyang, Meiguo zoushang Riben junguozhuyi huimei delaolu’ [Owen Lattimore said the American government's current behaviour is similar to Japan's behaviour during the 1930s; America has walked into Japanese militarists’ old road of destruction], 14 April 1965.

92 For example, Renmin Ribao articles, ‘Riben diguozhuyi cengjing zheyang qintun Chaoxian’ [This was how Japanese imperialists invaded Korea], 23 June 1965; ‘Riben diguozhuyi cengjing zenyang qinlve jianpuzhai’ [How Japanese imperialists invaded Cambodia], 6 January 1966; ‘Faxisizhouxin youxiang jiumengchongwen Xidezongli tong Riben shouxiang mitan’ [Fascist axis countries want to revive an old dream; prime ministers of West Germany and Japan have a secret discussion], 14 April 1965.

93 For example, Renmin Ribao articles, ‘Riben zhongxuesheng fandui junguozhuyi jiaoyu’ [Japanese middle school students oppose militarist education], 28 March 1969; ‘Fandui Riben fandongpai dagao junguozhuyi xuanchuan Riben gedi qunzhong jihui shiwei’ [Meetings are held all over Japan to oppose Japanese reactionary's militarist propaganda,], 21 February 1972.

94 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Fandui Mei Ri fandongpai hanranxuanbu “zidong yanchang” Ri Mei “anquantiaoyue”, Riben yibailiushi wanren juxing daguimo jihuishiwei’ [Protest against American and Japanese reactionaries’ decision to ‘automatically’ renew the Japan-American security treaty, 1.6 million Japanese hold large-scale assemblies and demonstrations], 25 June 1970; Anonymous. (1970). Down with Revived Japanese Militarism, China Reconstructs, 12.

95 See, for example, Renmin Ribao articles: ‘Buyunxu sanshisannianqian Riben junguozhuyi zhizaode Lugouqiao shibian chongyan’ [No more Marco Polo Bridge Incident happening 33 years ago], 8 July 1970; ‘Buxu “jiuyiba shibian” chongyan Dongjing xuesheng heshimin jihuishi wei’ [Not another September 18 Incident; Tokyo students and residences hold meetings], 20 September 1971.

96 A demonstration of 1.5 million people was organized in Beijing to protest against ‘the US and all its running dogs’. However, the main aim of this demonstration was to support the Indochina people's resistance war against the United States and show support for global anti-American movements, and had little to do with Japanese militarists.

97 An editorial entitled ‘Dadao fuhuode Riben junguozhuyi jinian Zhongguo renmin kang Ri zhanzheng shengli ershiwu zhou nian’ [Down with the resurgent Japanese militarism—commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Chinese people's victory of the Anti-Japanese War] was carried on the front page of Renmin Ribao, the People Liberation Army organ, and other local newspapers, like Xin Nanjing Ribao, on 3 September 1970.

98 For instance, just before the negotiation of Sino-Japanese normalization in 1972, Prime Minister Tanaka sent a delegation, consisting of some hard-core right-wing Diet members, to Beijing. Zhou Enlai received them on 18 September. He started an (obviously planned) conversation by asking the delegates, ‘What day is today?’ Confused, the delegates could not answer. Zhou then explained, ‘[The] September 18 Incident broke out 41 years ago. Forty-one years later, [the] Chinese and Japanese are holding each other's hands firmly.’ These Diet members were in fact not in favour of normalization and Tanaka hoped their opinions would be changed by this trip. Zhou's sudden words did move them, and caused them to change their minds. See Zhang, Xin Zhongguo yu Riben guanxishi; Yomiuri Shinbun, ‘Senso Shazai, Socchoku’ [Sincere Apology for the War], 25 September 1972.

99 See the memoirs of the people involved, like Zhang Xiangshan and Ji Pengfei: Zhang, X. (1998). ‘Zhong Ri fujiao tanpan huigu’ [Recall [of] the negotiation of the Sino-Japanese normalization], Riben Xuekan, 1 Google Scholar; Ji, P. (1995). ‘Yin shui buwang juejin ren’ [Don't forget the well-diggers when you drink from this well], in An, J. Zhou Enlai zuihoude suiyue [[The] last days of Zhou Enlai], Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, Beijing. See also some secondary sources, such as: Shuzaiyihan, N.H.K. (1993). Syuu Onlai no ketsudan [Zhou Enlai's determination], Nihon housou kyoukai, Tokyo, p. 149 Google Scholar.

100 For example, when Endo Saburo, who was a former lieutenant-general of the Japanese airforce, met his old opponent Chen Yi, who was famous for leading an anti-Japanese guerrilla group, he kept apologising. See Wang, J. (2010). Zhong Ri guanxi juejingren: ji sishiwuwei Zhong Ri youhaode xianqu [Well-diggers of Sino-Japanese relationship: 45 forerunners of Sino-Japanese friendship], Shijiezhishi chubanshe, Beijing, p. 66 Google Scholar.

101 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Dongjing Huaqiao Minbao jielu Riben fandongpai touxiang qianxi cengcansha woguo shibinggongren’ [Tokyo Huaqiao Minbao revealed Japanese reactionary killed Chinese soldiers and workers before surrender], 14 April 1950; Xinhua Ribao, ‘Wobei qiuzai Riben zuokugong’ [I was taken prisoner [and became a] forced labourer in Japan], 18 April 1950.

102 See, for example, Renmin Ribao articles: ‘Woguo xishengzai Ribende Kang Ri lieshi yigu yunhui zuguo’ [The remains of martyrs who died in Japan had been carried back to the motherland], 8 July 1953; ‘Gejie daibiao liangqianduoren zai Tianjin longzhong juxingdahui’ [Around 2,000 representatives held a ceremonious meeting in Tianjing], 9 July 1953; ‘Riben junguozhuyi de tao tian zuixing—‘Huagang canan’ [The atrocity of Japanese military—‘Hanaoka Massacre’], 8 July 1953.

103 For example, Renmin Ribao articles, ‘Wolieshi yigu jiaojieyishi zaijichang juxing’ [Handing-over ceremony of the martyrs’ remains was held in airport], 20 November 1964; ‘Huansong Riben husong Zhongguo lieshi yigu daibiaotuan’ [Send off [for the] Japanese delegation which escorted the remains of Chinese martyrs home], 27 November 1964. The handing-over ceremony in other years also received some media attention. See, for example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Riben “Zhongguo xunnan lieshi mingdan pengchi daibiao tuan” daoda Tianjin’ [Japanese delegation, bringing Chinese martyrs’ list of names, arrives at Tianjin], 3 June 1961.

104 For example, Renmin Ribao, ‘Riben liang youhao tuanti zuzhi Huagang canan diaocha’ [Two Japanese friendly groups investigate Hanaoka Massacre], 12 November 1970.

105 Wu, X. (2002). Fengyu yinqing wosuo jinglide Zhong Ri guanxi [Sino-Japanese relations I experienced], Shijiezhishi chubanshe, Beijing, p. 17 Google Scholar. Sun also said, ‘Japanese militarism's long-term occupation and governance left countless painful memories among people. After the foundation of [the] PRC, the party took many opportunities to find explanations and conducted internationalism education . . . People's image of Japanese was still negative . . . The job of explanation and education were especially difficult to carry out in the rural areas which were devastated by the iron heels of Japanese militarists.’ Sun, P. (1986), Zhong Ri youhao suixianglu [Memoirs about Sino-Japanese friendship], Liaoning renmin chubanshe, Shenyang, p. 8 Google Scholar.

106 Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu and Zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (1990). Zhou Enlai waijiao wenxuan [Selected diplomatic works of Zhou Enlai], Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, Beijing, p. 415. The Japanese were also sensitive to the fact that this was the very first time Chinese people had seen the Japanese flag after the foundation of the People's Republic of China. An incident in which a Japanese flag was damaged by rain was reported in the Japanese media; see, for example, Asahi Shinbun, ‘Pekinno Nihon Shohin Mihonichi’ [Beijing's Japanese Trade Fair], 8 October 1956.

107 Cai, C. (2002). ‘Hongdong Beijing de diyici Riben shangpin zhanlanhui’ [The first sensational Japanese products exhibition in Beijing], Zonghen, 12 Google Scholar; Senjin, Z. (1988). ‘Renmin shizenyang duidai taiyangqide—Ri Zhong jingji duanjiao xianchang baogao’ [How people dealt with the Japanese flag—an account of when China and Japan severed their economic relations], in Baigen, Z. Zhanhou Ri Zhong maoyishi, Liaoning renmin chubanshe, Shenyang, pp. 52–55 Google Scholar.

108 Cai, ‘Hongdong Beijing’; Liu, Zhanhou Zhong Ri guanxi, p. 267. Gao, F. (2012). ‘Bunengyong ganqing daiti zhengce—Zhong Ri fujiaoqian Zhongguo zhengfu duiminzhongde shuifu jiaoyu’ [We cannot use emotion to replace rationality; the Chinese government persuades and educates the Chinese people before Sino-Japanese normalization], Dangdai Zhongguoshi yanjiu, 5.

109 Mao and Zhou's public speeches about Japan decreased after Sino-Japanese normalization. In the early stage of Deng Xiaoping's era, he paid great attention to Japan's economic miracle and mentioned the success of the People's Liberation Army during the Fifteen-year War in his speeches, which were targeting Chinese domestic audiences. Deng, X. (1994). Deng Xiaoping wenxuan, Vol. 2 [Selected works of Deng Xiaoping], Renmin chubanshe, Beijing Google Scholar.

110 For example, when asked in 1974 ‘Do you believe the view of peace advocated by the Japanese?’ Mao answered, ‘We believe it now, but the future is difficult to judge.’ Mao Zedong waijiao wenxuan, p. 606.

111 Xinhua Ribao, ‘Riben yixiaocuo fanhua shili youzai chundong’ [A handful of Japanese anti-PRC forces carried out disruptive activities again], 2 February 1974; Renmin Ribao, ‘Rizhongyouxie fabiao shengming qianglie fandui fandongde “Jingguoshenshe faan”’ [Japan-China friendship association made a statement to strongly protest against the reactionary Yasukuni Shrine Bill], 26 April 1974; Renmin Ribao, ‘Riben zhongyuan qiangxing tongguo fandong de “Jingguoshenshe faan”’ [Japanese House of Representatives coercively passed the Bill of Yasukuni Shrine], 27 May 1974.