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Compradors, Neo-colonialism, and Transnational Class Struggle: PRC relations with Algeria and India, 1953–1965

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 August 2020

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ANTON HARDER*
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Abstract

This study of China's relations with Algeria and India shows that the Mao-era emphasis on the transnational function of class made it fundamentally sceptical of the privileged status of the nation-state and transformed Beijing's posture towards the Third World in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Beijing's sense of a growing matrix of transnational class forces damaged relations with India, a key Third World moderate, and spurred closer ties with non-state, revolutionary movements like the Algerian Front Libération Nationale (FLN). Thus Beijing retreated from the post-Korean War phase of moderate diplomacy during which it had eschewed support for revolution abroad under the rhetoric of the ‘Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence’. This article relates Beijing's class analysis of the growing challenges in its relations with India to the arc of interactions between the communist Chinese, the FLN revolutionaries, and the newly post-colonial Algeria. It demonstrates that because of Beijing's understanding of how the domestic class category ‘comprador’ facilitated ‘neo-colonialism’ (an emerging Third World concept), China's anti-imperialism must be understood through its perception of the transnational function of class forces. This understanding of the post-colonial dilemma—how far to maintain or sever ties with the West, which grew partly from Chinese perceptions of Indian politics—explains the curious difficulty that Beijing faced in maintaining cooperative relations with many newly independent nations like Algeria. The emphasis on transnational class struggle also provides an interpretation of Beijing's foreign policy which is intimately linked to domestic politics and affirms the contribution of ideology to the Sino-Soviet split.

Type
Research Article
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Modern Asian Studies , Volume 55 , Issue 4 , July 2021 , pp. 1227 - 1267
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Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

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88 ‘Peng Dehuai yuanshuai huijian A'erjiliya junshi daibiaotuan de tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Marshal Peng Dehuai and the Algerian military delegation]’, 6 April 1959, CMFA, 107-00191-03.

89 ‘Zhou Enlai zongli huijian A'erjiliya junshi daibiaotuan tanhua jilu [Record of talks at Premier Zhou Enlai's meeting with the Algerian military delegation]’, 5 May 1959, CMFA, 107-00191-06.

90 Walder, China under Mao, pp. 164–69.

91 ‘Yindu dida zichan jieji de zhuanhua [The transformation of India's big capitalists]’, 27 November 1959, CMFA, 105-00998-06.

92 Niu Jun, ‘1962: The Eve of the Left Turn in China's Foreign Policy’, Cold War International History Project Working Paper 48, Woodrow Wilson Center, October 2005, p. 8; see also Eisenman, ‘Comrades-in-Arms’, p. 434.

93 CMFA, 105-00998-06.

94 Kuisong, Yang, Zhongjian didai de geming: guoji da beijing xia kan zhonggong chenggong zhi dao [Revolution in the Intermediate Zone: The Victory of the Chinese Communist Party in its International Context] (Taiyuan: Shanxi People's Publishing, 2010), p. 526Google Scholar.

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98 ‘Zhou Enlai zongli huijian A'erjiliya fuzongli Beilekasaimu huitan jilu [Record of talks between Premier Zhou and Algeria's Deputy Premier Belkacem]’, 14 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-05.

99 Ibid.

100 ‘Mao Zedong zhuxi jiejian A'erjiliya fu zongli Beilekasaimu tanhua jilu [Record of talks at Chairman Mao's reception of Algerian Deputy Premier Belkacem]’, 17 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-01.

101 ‘Chen Yi fuzongli tong A'erjiliya fuzongli Beilekasaimu huitan jilu [Record of talks between Vice Premier Chen Yi and Algeria's Deputy President Belkacem]’, 18 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-06; see also CMFA, 107-00120-05.

102 ‘A gan fa tanpan shi [Algeria pushes France over negotiations]', Embassy in Morocco, 19 June 1960, A’erjiliya yu faguo tanpan ji wo duici tanpan de taidu [Negotiations between Algeria and France and our attitude to these talks], 19–24 June 1960, CMFA, 107-00225-01.

103 ‘A'basi zuowan fayan gao a renminshu [Abbas speech yesterday announcing his letter to the Algerian people]’, Embassy in Morocco, 21 June 1960, CMFA, 107-00225-01.

104 ‘Beilekasaimu jian chen dashi tan neirong [Content of talks when Belkacem met Ambassador Chen]', Embassy in United Arab Republic, 27 June 1960, A'erjiliya fuzongli beilekasaimu gao wo pai Feiluji wei zhuhua daibiao deng youguan qingkuang [Situation relating to Algeria’s Deputy President Belkacem announcing that he will send Feiluji as a representative stationed in China and other matters], 27 June 1960, CMFA, 107-00225-03.

105 ‘Guobin jiedai qingkuang (A'erjiliya daibiaotuan tong wo huitan qingkuang) [Circumstances surrounding state visitors (Talks with Algeria delegation)]’, 5 October 1960, CMFA, 204-00119-12.

106 ‘Zeng Yongquan fubuzhang yu A'erjiliya zhuhua waijiaoshituan tuanzhang de tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Deputy Minister Zeng Yongquan and Algeria's head of delegation in China]’, 17 May 1961, CMFA, 107-00970-01.

107 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 79–83.

108 For example, see fn. 1 and also CMFA, 107-00120-02.

109 Harder, Anton, ‘Promoting Development without Struggle: Sino-Indian Relations in the 1950s’, in India and the Cold War, (ed.) Bhagavan, Manu (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2019), p. 160Google Scholar.

110 See Brazinsky, ‘Showcasing the Chinese Version of Moderni-tea in Africa’.

111 For example, see CMFA, 107-00120-05.

112 ‘Zhou Enlai zongli tong A'erjiliya fuzongli Beilekasaimu huitan jilu [Record of talks between Premier Zhou and Algerian Deputy President Beilekasaimu]’, 19 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-07.

113 CMFA, 107-00191-02.

114 G. Deshingkar, ‘Science and Technology in China—A Preliminary Enquiry’, China Report, vol. 10, no. 5–6, Sep.–Dec. 1974, p. 277.

115 Two examples are Lijing, Jiang, ‘Global Epidemiology, Local Message: Sino-American Collaboration on Cancer Research, 1969–1990’, in Global Transformations in the Life Sciences, 1945–1980, (eds) Manning, Patrick and Savelli, Mat (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2018)Google Scholar; and Lijing, Jiang, ‘Crafting Socialist Embryology: Dialectics, Aquaculture, and the Diverging Discipline in Maoist China, 1950–1965’, History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, vol. 40, no. 3, 2018Google Scholar. For a more concise overview of recent literature on science in Mao's China, see Jia-chen, Fu, ‘Practice and the History of Science in the PRC: A Historiographic Reflection’, East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal, vol. 13, no. 3, 2019, pp. 449–63Google Scholar.

116 ‘A'basi zuowan fayan gao a renminshu [Abbas speech yesterday announcing his letter to the Algerian people]’, Embassy in Morocco, 21 June 1960, CMFA, 107-00225-01.

117 CMFA, 107-00970-03.

118 ‘Chen Yi fuzongli jiejian A'erjiliya zhuhua waijiaoshituan tuanzhang Abudule Lakeman Jiwan de tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Vice Premier Chen Yi and the head of Algeria's permanent delegation to China Abderrahmane Kiouane]’, 25 July 1961, CMFA, 107-00970-04.

119 ‘Guobin jiedai qingkuang (A'basi zongli canguanzhong de fanying) [Circumstances on state visitors (President Abbas's reactions during visit)]’, 2 October 1960, CMFA, 204-00119-25.

120 ‘A'erjiliya gongheguo linshi zhengfu zongli ben yousufu ben keda zhi zhou enlai zongli de xin [Letter from Benyoucef Benkhedda, President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Algeria to Premier Zhou Enlai]', 9 February 1962, Zhou zongli huijian a’erjiliya waijiao shituan tuanzhang jiwan tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Premier Zhou Enlai and Kiouane, Head of the Algerian diplomatic mission], 20 February 1962, CMFA, 107-00991-01.

121 Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution, pp. 364–65.

122 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 126–29.

123 Niu, ‘1962’, pp. 30–36.

124 ‘Waijiaobu shoudian, alian tailai [Embassy in United Arab Republic to Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs]', 2 July 1962, Dui a'erjiliya neibu fenqi de kanfa he jianyi, zhongguo zhengfu lingdaoren jiejian a zhuhua shituanzhang de qingshi ji zhongyang pishi [Opinions and suggestions regarding Algeria's internal differences, Chinese Government leaders' instructions to receive Algeria's representative in China and the centre’s annotations], 2–16 July 1962, CMFA, 107-00994-01.

125 ‘Dui a'erjiliya neibu fenqi de kanfa he jianyi wo zhengfu lingdaoren yuejian a zhuhua shituanzhang deng wenti de qingshi [Instructions on opinions and suggestions related to internal differences in Algeria and the Government's leaders meeting with the head of the Algerian delegation and other issues]’, Foreign Ministry, 5 July 1962, CMFA, 107-00994-01.

126 Zhongguo paizhu a'erjiliya dashiguan linshi daiban de qingshi ji youguan dianbao [China's request to send an interim chargé d'affaires to the embassy in Algeria and related telegrams], 19 July–11 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00995-02.

127 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 126–29.

128 Niu, ‘1962’, p. 33; and Chen, Mao's China, p. 210.

129 ‘Dui a minzu jiefang chenxian neibu douzheng de kanfa [Opinion on Algerian FLN internal struggle]', Embassy in Switzerland, 2 August 1962, Zhongguo zhuwaishi dui a'erjiliya xingshi de kanfa [China's overseas diplomats’ views on the situation in Algeria], 5 August–8 September 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

130 ‘A'erjiliya qingkuang he shiguan kanfa [Algerian situation and embassy's view]’, Embassy in Morocco, 5 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01. Connelly describes the OAS as a ‘terrorist militia made up of the most diehard settlers’: see Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution, p. 22.

131 ‘Du'er tong ke dashi tanhua neirong [Talks between Touré and Ambassador Ke]', Embassy in Guinea, 8 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

132 ‘A'erjiliya xingshi ji jidian jianyi [Situation in Algeria and a few suggestions]’, Embassy in Morocco, 9 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

133 ‘Yafeisi he gongkai fusizhang huijian a'erjiliya zhu zhongguo shituan tuanzhang Jiwan tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Asian African Bureau Deputy Director He Gongkai and head of Algeria's delegation to China Abderrahmane Kiouane]’, 10 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00996-05.

134 On effects of the famine, see Walder, China under Mao, pp. 180–88; Manning, K. Ens and Wemheuer, F. (eds), Eating Bitterness: New Perspectives on China's Great Leap Forward and the Famine (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Jisheng, Yang, Mubei—Zhongguo liushi niandai de jihuang jishi, 2 vols, (Hong Kong: Tiandi Tushu, 2008)Google Scholar or the shorter English edition: Jisheng, Yang, Tombstone: The Great Chinese Famine 1958–1962 (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2012)Google Scholar; and Dikotter, F., Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe (London: Bloomsbury, 2011)Google Scholar.

135 Chen yi fuzongli huijian a'erjiliya zhuhua zhongguo dashituan tuanzhang jiwan tanhua yaodian [Summary points of discussion at Vice Premier Chen Yi's meeting with head of Algeria's delegation to China Abderrahmane Kiouane], 21–27 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00996-02; see CMFA, 107-00996-01 for verbatim record.

136 ‘A'erjiliya qingkuang [Algeria situation]', Embassy in Algeria, 15 September 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

137 ‘A xin zhengfu zucheng qingkuang jiqi neiwai zhengce [Composition of Algeria’s new government and its internal and external policies]’, Embassy in Algeria, 9 October 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

138 Brown, M., ‘Drawing Algeria into Europe: Shifting French Policy and the Treaty of Rome (1951–1964)’, Modern and Contemporary France, vol. 25, no. 2 (3 April 2017), pp. 199–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

139 ‘Bao a jizhe long fei tan de yixie qingkuang [Report on talk with Algerian journalist Khaled Safer]’, Embassy in Algeria, 24 October 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

140 ‘Guanyu yuan a wenti [Regarding aid to Algeria]', Beijing to embassy in Algeria, 21 February 1963, Zhongguo dui A'erjiliya jingji yuanzhu de taidu [China’s attitude towards economic aid for Algeria], 20–26 February 1963, CMFA, 107-01016-02.

141 Liu, Chinese Ambassadors, p. 85.

142 ‘Zhongguo xiang A'erjiliya tigongguo dong yiwu, zhangpeng shi [China's provision to Algeria of winter clothing and tents]’, 6 November–1 December 1962, CMFA, 107-00996-03.

143 ‘Guanyu zhudong dui a'erjiliya jinxing yuanzhu he jinyibu kaizhan gongzuo de qingshi [Regarding instructions for actively increasing aid to Algeria and further expansion of work]’, Embassy in Algeria, 20 February 1963, CMFA, 107-01016-02.

144 Brazinsky, ‘Showcasing the Chinese Version of Moderni-tea in Africa’.

145 Sun, ‘“Now the Cry was Communism”’, pp. 5–10.

146 Chen, Mao's China, pp. 210–11.

147 Brazinsky, Winning the Third World, pp. 260–64; Eisenman, ‘Comrades-in-Arms’, p. 437.

148 ‘Chen Yi fuzongli huijian A'erjiliya zhu zhongguo shituan tuanzhang Jiwan tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Vice Premier Chen Yi and Head of Algeria's delegation in China Abderrahmane Kiouane]’, 21 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00996-01.

149 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 113–15.

150 Liu, Chinese Ambassadors, pp. 76–90.

151 Li, ‘Building a Black Bridge’, pp. 141–43.

152 Yang, Zhongjian didai de geming, p. 527.

153 Valdez, J., Internationalism and the Ideology of Soviet Influence in Eastern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 47Google Scholar.

154 ‘Peaceful Coexistence and Revolution: A Kommunist Article by G. Starushenko’, New Age, 8 April 1962, pp. 6–7.

155 The Editorial Department of Renmin Ribao [People's Daily], ‘More on Nehru's Philosophy in the Light of the Sino-Indian Boundary Question’, 27 October 1962, Wilson Center Digital Archive, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/175947, [last accessed 18 June 2020].

156 Zial-Haq, ‘Glimpses into the Chinese Mind: Perverse Understanding of Indian Situation’, New Age, 11 November 1962, p. 5; and ‘Workers, Employers, Government: Jointly Meet to Help Defence’, New Age, 11 November 1962, p. 6.

157 Lifeng, Li, ‘Rural Mobilization in the Chinese Communist Revolution: From the Anti-Japanese War to the Chinese Civil War’, Journal of Modern Chinese History, vol. 9, no. 1, 2015, pp. 95–116Google Scholar.

158 ‘Mao Zedong zhuxi jiejian A'erjiliya fuzongli Beilekamu tanhua jilu [Record of talks at Chairman Mao's reception of Algerian Deputy Premier Belkacem]’, 17 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-01.

159 Li, ‘Building a Black Bridge’, p. 137.