Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T23:14:15.225Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Challenge of Garveyism Studies

Part of: The Soapbox

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 May 2018

Adam Ewing
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The past two decades have witnessed a resurgence of work on Marcus Garvey, Garveyism, and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in the American academy. Building on a first wave of Garveyism scholarship (1971–1988), and indebted to the archival and curatorial work of Robert A. Hill and the editors of the Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, this new work has traced the resonance of Garveyism across a staggering number of locations: from the cities and farms of North America to the labor compounds and immigrant communities of Central America to the colonial capitals of the Caribbean and Africa. It has pushed the temporal dimensions of Garveyism, connecting it backward to pan-African and black nationalist discourses and mobilizations as early as the Age of Revolution, and forward to the era of decolonization and Black Power. It has revealed the ways that Garveyism, a mass movement rooted in community aspirations, ideals, debates, and prejudices, offers a forum for excavating African diasporic discourses, particularly their contested gender politics. It has revealed that much more work remains to be done in Brazil, West Africa, Britain, France, and elsewhere.

Type
The Soapbox
Information
Modern American History , Volume 1 , Issue 3 , November 2018 , pp. 399 - 418
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2018. Published by Cambridge University Press 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 In addition to a slew of important articles and book chapters, a number of books on Garveyism have been published since the turn of the century. See Ronald J. Stephens and Adam Ewing, eds., Global Garveyism (Gainsville, FL, forthcoming); Ewing, Adam, The Age of Garvey: How a Jamaican Activist Created a Mass Movement and Changed Global Black Politics (Princeton, NJ, 2014)Google Scholar; Jolly, Kenneth S., “By Our Own Strength”: William Sherrill, the UNIA, and the Fight for African American Self-Determination in Detroit (New York, 2013)Google Scholar; Vinson, Robert Trent, The Americans are Coming! Dreams of African American Liberation in Segregationist South Africa (Athens, OH, 2012)Google Scholar; Spady, James G., Marcus Garvey: Jazz, Reggae, Hip Hop & the African Diaspora (Philadelphia, 2011)Google Scholar; James, C. Boyd, Garvey, Garveyism, and the Antinomies in Black Redemption (Trenton, NJ, 2009)Google Scholar; Bandele, Ramla, Black Star: African American Activism in the International Political Economy (Urbana, IL, 2008)Google Scholar; Rolinson, Mary G., Grassroots Garveyism: The Universal Negro Improvement Association in the Rural South, 1920–1927 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harold, Claudrena N., The Rise and Fall of the Garvey Movement in the Urban South, 1918–1942 (New York, 2007)Google Scholar; Taylor, Ula Y., The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002)Google Scholar.

2 Books published during the first wave of Garveyism scholarship include Lewis, Rupert, Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion (Trenton, NJ, 1988)Google Scholar; Lewis, Rupert and Bryan, Patrick, eds., Garvey, His Work and Impact (Mona, Jamaica, 1988)Google Scholar; Lewis, Rupert and Warner-Lewis, Maureen, eds., Garvey: Africa, Europe, the Americas (Kingston, Jamaica, 1986)Google Scholar; Martin, Tony, The Pan-African Connection: From Slavery to Garvey and Beyond (Dover, MA, 1983)Google Scholar; Martin, Tony, Marcus Garvey, Hero: A First Biography (Dover, MA, 1983)Google Scholar; Martin, Tony, Literary Garveyism: Garvey, Black Arts, and the Harlem Renaissance (Dover, MA, 1983)Google Scholar; Tolbert, Emory J., The UNIA in Black Los Angeles: Ideology and Community in the American Garvey Movement (Los Angeles, 1980)Google Scholar; Burkett, Randall K., Garveyism as a Religious Movement: The Institutionalization of a Black Civil Religion (Metuchen, NJ, 1978)Google Scholar; Martin, Tony, Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (Dover, MA, 1986)Google Scholar; Clarke, John Henrik, ed., with the assistance of Garvey, Amy Jacques, Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa (New York, 1974)Google Scholar; Vincent, Theodore G., Black Power and the Garvey Movement (Berkeley, CA, 1971)Google Scholar. The first ten volumes of the remarkable Garvey Papers were published by the University of California Press between 1983 and 2006. Since 2011, an additional three volumes have been published by Duke University Press. All of this work has been conducted under the direction of the world's preeminent Garveyism scholar, Robert A. Hill.

3 At the root of black nationalism is the belief that race has been the fundamental category shaping the emergence of the modern world, beginning from at least the inauguration of the Atlantic slave trade. Black nationalists share a profound skepticism that this modern world system, which is defined by European political, economic, and cultural hegemony, can be reformed from within, via integrationist or universalist strategies. They thus embrace strategies that seek to build centers of autonomous power that might better resist or confront the racialized power of the West. For further discussion of black nationalism, see Dawson, Michael C., Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies (Chicago, 2001), 21–2, 85–134Google Scholar. For another helpful working definition of black nationalism, see Blain, Keisha N., Set the World on Fire: Black Nationalist Women and the Global Struggle for Freedom (Philadelphia, 2018), 5–6Google Scholar.

4 See, for example, two excellent recent surveys of African American history: Holt, Thomas C., Children of Fire: A History of African Americans (New York, 2011), 260Google Scholar; Tuck, Stephen, We Ain't What We Ought to Be: The Black Freedom Struggle from Emancipation to Obama (Cambridge, MA, 2010), 163Google Scholar. See also Kevin Gaines's framing of African American historiography in “African-American History,” in American History Now, ed. Foner, Eric and McGirr, Lisa (Philadelphia, 2011), 400–20Google Scholar.

5 Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo, African American History Reconsidered (Urbana, IL, 2010), 3–5Google Scholar; Lewis, David Levering, “Radical History: Toward Inclusiveness,” Journal of American History 76, no. 2 (Sept. 1989): 471–4, here 472CrossRefGoogle Scholar, quoted in Dagbovie, African American History Reconsidered, 4.

6 I am borrowing the notion of a liberal-integrationist framework from Steven Hahn. See Hahn, Steven, A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA, 2003), 6Google Scholar; Hahn, Steven, The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom (Cambridge, MA, 2009), 159–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 William Strickland, “On Genovese,” Institute of the Black World Papers, William Strickland Collection, box 3: Addresses, Articles, and Essays, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York City, NY [hereafter Schomburg Center, NYPL].

8 Burgess is quoted in Novick, Peter, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge, UK, 1988), 75CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Meier, August and Rudwick, Elliott, Black History and the Historical Profession, 1915–1980 (Urbana, IL, 1986), 3–4Google Scholar; Lewis, Earl, “To Turn as on a Pivot: Writing African Americans into a History of Overlapping Diasporas,” American Historical Review 100, no. 3 (June 1995): 765–87, here 767–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tyrrell, Ian, “Making Nations/Making States: American Historians in the Context of Empire,” Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (Dec. 1999): 1015–44, here 1021–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Robinson, Cedric J., Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition (1983; Chapel Hill, NC, 2000), 81–2Google Scholar. This point is made by Kelley, Robin D. G., “‘But a Local Phase of a World Problem’: Black History's Global Vision, 1883–1950,” Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (Dec. 1999): 1045–77, here 1062CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Du Bois, W. E. B., “The Propaganda of History,” in Black Reconstruction in America 1860–1880 (1935; New York, 1969), 726Google Scholar.

11 Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 97–8; Blassingame, John W., “Black Studies and the Role of the Historian,” in New Perspectives on Black Studies, ed. Blassingame, John W. (Urbana, IL, 1971), 207–26, here 217Google Scholar.

12 Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 8–74.

13 Kelley, “But a Local Phase,” 1058–9. Du Bois's magisterial Black Reconstruction in America was not reviewed in the profession's flagship journal, the American Historical Review. See Tyrrell, “Making Nations,” 1019.

14 Tyrrell, “Making Nations,” 1015–20; Novick, That Noble Dream, 469; Thelen, David, “The Nation and Beyond: Transnational Perspectives on United States History,” Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (Dec. 1999): 965–75, 965–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sloane, William M., “History and Democracy,” American Historical Review 1, no. 1 (Oct. 1895): 1–23, here 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 11, 118–20; Harris, Robert L. Jr., “Coming of Age: The Transformation of Afro-American Historiography,” Journal of Negro History 67, no. 2 (Summer 1982): 107–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stuckey, Sterling, “Twilight of Our Past: Reflections on the Origins of Black History,” in Amistad 2, eds. Williams, John A. and Harris, Charles F. (New York, 1971), 261–96, here 277–8Google Scholar.

16 Dudziak, Mary L., Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ, 2000)Google Scholar; Singh, Nikhil Pal, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, MA, 2004), 134–73Google Scholar.

17 Franklin, John Hope, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of American Negroes (New York, 1947)Google Scholar; Franklin, John Hope, “The New Negro History,” Journal of Negro History 42, no. 2 (Apr. 1957): 89–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Novick, That Noble Dream, 472; Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 173. The other two major journals comprising the “big three” were the American Historical Review and the Journal of Southern History.

19 Baker, Houston A., “Black Studies: A New Story,” in Africana Studies: A Disciplinary Quest for Both Theory and Method, ed. Conyers, James L. Jr., (Jefferson, NC, 1997), 29–44, here 32–4Google Scholar; Biondi, Martha, The Black Revolution on Campus (Berkeley, CA, 2012), 4, 201–5Google Scholar; Harding, Vincent, “Beyond Chaos: Black History and the Search for the New Land,” in Amistad 1, eds. Williams, John A. and Harris, Charles F. (New York, 1970), 267–92Google Scholar.

20 Baker, “Black Studies,” 36.

21 Harding, “Beyond Chaos,” 268–89. Sterling Stuckey took more care to root this “new” history in the ground tended by older black scholars on the margins of the academy, particularly W. E. B. Du Bois: Stuckey, “Twilight of Our Past,” 264.

22 For other examples of this thinking, see Stuckey, “Twilight of Our Past,” 290; Hare, Nathan, “The Challenge of the Black Scholar,” The Black Scholar 1, no. 2 (1969): 58–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nathan Hare, “What Should Be the Role of Afro-American Education in the Undergraduate Curriculum?” in New Perspectives on Black Studies, 3–15; Thelwell, Mike, “Black Studies: A Political Perspective,” Massachusetts Review 10, no. 4 (Autumn 1969): 703–12Google Scholar; Harding, “Beyond Chaos,” 279.

23 Harding, Vincent, “The Vocation of the Black Scholar and the Struggles of the Black Community,” in Education and Black Struggle: Notes from the Colonized World (Atlanta, 1974), 3–29Google Scholar; Césaire, Aimé, “Letter to Maurice Thorez,” Social Text 28, no. 2 (Summer 2010): 145–52, here 152Google Scholar; Lerone Bennett, Jr., “The Challenge of Blackness,” Black Scholar, Feb. 1971, quoted in Semmes, Clovis E., The End of Black Studies: Conceptual, Theoretical, and Empirical Concerns (New York, 2017), 71Google Scholar; Bennett is also quoted in Biondi, Black Revolution on Campus, 178.

24 The other women lecturers were the writer Toni Cade (Bambara) and National Black Theater founder Barbara Ann Teer. See the “Black Heritage is Us” pamphlet in the folder 39, box 28, John Henrik Clarke Papers, Schomburg Center, NYPL.

25 For recent work that centers black women within black nationalist politics and ideology, see Blain, Set the World on Fire; Farmer, Ashley D., Remaking Black Power: How Black Women Transformed an Era (Chapel Hill, NC, 2017)Google Scholar.

26 Novick, That Noble Dream, 474–6; Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 290–3; Wiebe, Robert H., “The Sixty-Second Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians,” Journal of American History 56, no. 3 (Dec. 1969): 621–37, here 635CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 Martin, William G. and West, Michael O., “The Ascent, Triumph, and Disintegration of the Africanist Enterprise, USA,” in Out of One, Many Africas: Reconstructing the Study and Meaning of Africa, eds. Martin, William G. and West, Michael O. (Urbana, IL, 1999), 85–105Google Scholar; Martin, Guy and Young, Carlene, “The Paradox of Separate and Unequal: African Studies and Afro-American Studies,” Journal of Negro Education 53, no. 3 (Summer 1984): 257–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Biondi, Black Revolution on Campus, 251–5.

28 Biondi, Black Revolution on Campus, 175–9, 249; Allen, Robert L., “Politics of the Attack on Black Studies,” Black Scholar 6, no. 1 (Sept. 1974), 2–7, here 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29 Baker, “Black Studies,” 37; Lorde, Audre, Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (1984; Berkeley, 2007), 123Google Scholar.

30 Biondi, Black Revolution on Campus, 188–200; Thelwell, “Black Studies,” 703–8; Clark, Kenneth B., “A Charade of Power: Black Studies at White Colleges,” Antioch Review 29, no. 2 (Summer 1969): 145–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kilson, Martin, “Whither Black Higher Education?” School Review 81, no. 3 (May 1973): 427–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kilson, Martin, “Anatomy of the Black Studies Movement,” Massachusetts Review 10, no. 4 (Autumn 1969): 718–25Google Scholar; Kilson, Martin, “Reflections on Structure and Content in Black Studies,” Journal of Black Studies 3, no. 3 (Mar. 1973): 297–314CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Allen, “Politics of the Attack on Black Studies,” 6.

31 Kilson, “Whither Black Higher Education?” 432–3; Kilson, “Anatomy,” 721–2.

32 John W. Blassingame, “Black Studies: An Intellectual Crisis,” in New Perspectives on Black Studies, 149–66, here 161–2; Eugene Genovese, “Black Studies: Trouble Ahead,” in New Perspectives on Black Studies, 104–15, here 112–3; W. Arthur Lewis, “The Road to the Top Is Through Higher Education—Not Black Studies,” New York Times Magazine, May 11, 1969, SM34.

33 Newby, I. A., “Historians and Negroes,” Journal of Negro History 54, no. 1 (Jan. 1969): 32–47, here 32CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Novick, That Noble Dream, 470; Quarles, Benjamin, “Black History Unbound,” Daedalus 103, no. 2 (Spring 1974): 163–78, here 167Google Scholar; Franklin is quoted in Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 285–6; Blassingame, “Black Studies and the Role of the Historian,” in New Perspectives on Black Studies, 222.

34 Schlesinger, Arthur Jr., “Nationalism and History,” Journal of Negro History 54, no. 1 (Jan. 1969): 19–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Woodward, C. Vann, “Clio with Soul,” Journal of American History 56, no. 1 (June 1969): 5–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 For example, much trenchant criticism has been written about black nationalism's often problematic gender politics. See White, E. Frances, “Africa on My Mind: Gender, Counter Discourse and African-American Nationalism,” Journal of Women's History 2, no. 1 (Spring 1990): 73–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Davies, Carol Boyce, Black Women, Writing and Identity: Migrations of the Subject (London, 1994), 49–50Google Scholar; Mitchell, Michele, Righteous Propagation: African Americans and the Politics of Racial Destiny after Reconstruction (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004)Google Scholar. Keisha N. Blain's new book examines the dynamic efforts of black nationalist women to move to the center of black nationalist praxis. See Blain, Set the World on Fire.

37 “Interview with Chandler Owen and A. Philip Randolph by Mowbray White,” August 20, 1920, and “Interview with W. E. B. Du Bois by Charles Mowbray White,” August 23, 1920, in The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. II: August 1919–August 1920, ed. Hill, Robert A. (Berkeley, CA, 1983), 609, 620Google Scholar.

38 Du Bois, who had once demanded that Garvey either be “locked up or sent home,” later softened his views on his long-time rival. See Bois, Du, “A Lunatic or a Traitor?” The Crisis 28, no. 1 (May 1924): 8–9Google Scholar; and Bois, Du, Dusk of Dawn: An Essay toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept (1940; New Brunswick, NJ, 2011), 277–8Google Scholar.

39 James, C. L. R., A History of Negro Revolt (London, 1938), 69–70Google Scholar. James, like Du Bois, came to recognize the scope of Garvey's achievement and, more importantly, the significance of his message in rousing mass action: James, C. L. R., “From Toussaint L'Ouverture to Fidel Castro,” in The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution, 2nd ed. rev. (New York, 1963), 391–418, here 396Google Scholar.

40 Padmore, George, The Life and Struggles of Negro Toilers (London, 1931), 6Google Scholar.

41 Amy Jacques Garvey to E. David Cronon, Mar. 28, 1955, folder 1, box 29, John Henrik Clarke Papers; Jacques Garvey to John Henrik Clarke, Apr. 10, 1969, folder 3, box 29, John Henrik Clarke Papers, Schomburg Center, NYPL.

42 Cronon, E. David, Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the UNIA (Madison, WI, 1955), 203, 220–2Google Scholar.

43 Cronon, E. David, “Review of Garvey and Garveyism, by A. Jacques Garvey,” Caribbean Studies 5, no. 2 (July 1965): 74–5Google Scholar. As far as I am aware, there was only one other review of Garvey and Garveyism published: Lewis, Gordon K., “Review of Garvey and Garveyism, by A. Jacques Garvey,” Caribbean Quarterly 10, no. 3 (Sept. 1964): 50–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Lewis, the great Caribbean scholar, is nearly as dismissive as Cronon, deeming the work “a labour of love and an act of dedication,” not “a critical book in the academic sense.” For an account of the marginalization of Garvey and Garveyism by scholars, see Taylor, Ula Yvette, The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002), 223–4Google Scholar. See also Adler, Karen S., “‘Always Leading Our Men in Service and Sacrifice’: Amy Jacques Garvey, Feminist Black Nationalist,” Gender and Society 6, no. 3 (Sept. 1992): 346–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44 Myrdal, Gunnar, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944; New Brunswick, NJ, 1996), 746–9, 814, 819, 834–6, 852–7Google Scholar.

45 Martin, Race First, ix.

46 Rudwick, Elliott, “Marcus Garvey's Revenge,” Reviews in American History 5, no. 1 (Mar. 1977): 92–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rayford Logan, review of Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association by Martin, Tony, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, no. 429 (Jan. 1977): 174–5Google Scholar; August Meier, review of Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association by Martin, Tony, American Historical Review 82, no. 1 (Feb. 1977): 205–6Google Scholar.

47 Judith Stein, review of Garvey: Africa, Europe, the Americas, by Lewis, Rupert and Warner-Lewis, Maureen, New West Indian Guide 64, no. 1/2 (1990): 67–9Google Scholar; Stein, Judith, The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society (Baton Rouge, LA, 1986), 6, 53, 221, 275Google Scholar. For Stein's other dismissals of black nationalism as “too abstract to form the basis for a popular movement” and unable to connect to the masses’ “concrete needs and hopes,” see Stein, Judith, “The Ideology and Practice of Garveyism,” in Garvey: His Work and Impact, eds. Lewis, Rupert and Bryan, Patrick (Mona, Jamaica, 1988), 199–213, here 202Google Scholar.

48 Rupert Lewis, review of The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society, by Stein, Judith, Social and Economic Studies 39, no. 3 (Sept. 1990): 195–9Google Scholar; Tony Martin, review of The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society, by Stein, Judith, Journal of American History 74, no. 3 (1987): 1082–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nathan Irvin Huggins, review of The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society, by Stein, Judith, American Historical Review 94, no. 2 (1989): 536Google Scholar; Eric Arnesen, review of The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society, by Stein, Judith, International Labor and Working-Class History, no. 31 (Spring 1987): 104–7Google Scholar; John Higham, “The National Question in Black History,” review of The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society, by Stein, Judith, Reviews in American History 15, no. 2 (June 1987): 285–9Google Scholar.

49 See, for example, Meier's and Rudwick's dismissal of Harding's history of American slavery, There Is a River (1981), as describing nothing but “a long memory of ineradicable and only modestly modifiable white racism, and an equally constant deep river of black protest, glorious in itself, but largely futile”: Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 228–9. See also Meier, August, “Whither the Black Perspective in Afro-American Historiography,” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 101–5Google Scholar; Novick, That Noble Dream, 490; and Nell Irvin Painter's rebuttal to the negative reception of the book in “Who Decides What Is History?” Nation, Mar. 6, 1982, 276–8.

50 Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 299.

51 My thinking on Afrocentrism has been greatly clarified and aided by my discussions with Sarah Balakrishnan. See Balakrishnan, “Afrocentrism Revisited: On Black Nationalism and the Politics of African History,” unpublished manuscript. For “unthinkable” history, see Trouillot, Michel-Rolph, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston, 1995), 70–107Google Scholar.

52 Dawson, Black Visions, 30, 133. See also Umoja, Akinyele, “Searching for Place: Nationalism, Separatism, and Pan-Africanism,” in A Companion to African American History, ed. Hornsby, Alton Jr., (Malden, MA, 2005), 529–44, here 530CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Bush, Rod, We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century (New York, 1999), 2Google ScholarPubMed.

53 Theoharis, Jeanne, “Black Freedom Studies: Re-imagining and Redefining the Fundamentals,” History Compass 4, no. 2 (Mar. 2006): 348–67, here 353CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The “long civil rights movement” was coined by Nikhil Pal Singh in Black Is a Country, 6, and popularized by Jacquelyn Dowd Hall in her influential essay, “The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past,” Journal of American History 91, no. 4 (Mar. 2005): 1233–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For other examples of the conceptual blurring of civil rights and Black Power, see Tyson, Timothy B., Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, NC, 1999)Google Scholar; Sugrue, Thomas J., Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York, 2008)Google Scholar; Gore, Dayo F., Theoharis, Jeanne, and Woodard, Komozi, eds., Want to Start a Revolution? Radical Women in the Black Freedom Struggle (New York, 2009), 2–17Google Scholar.

54 Cha-Jua, Sundiata Keita and Lang, Clarence, “The ‘Long Movement’ as Vampire: Temporal and Spatial Fallacies in Recent Black Freedom Studies,” Journal of African American History 92, no. 2 (Spring 2007): 265–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 298–9.

56 Joseph, Peniel E., “The Black Power Movement: A State of the Field,” Journal of American History 96, no. 3 (Dec. 2009): 751–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Joseph, Peniel E., ed., The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights-Black Power Era (New York, 2006)Google Scholar; Joseph, Peniel E., Dark Days, Bright Nights: From Black Power to Barack Obama (New York, 2010)Google Scholar; Joseph, Peniel E., Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York, 2006)Google Scholar; Joseph, Peniel E., ed., Neighborhood Rebels: Black Power at the Local Level (New York, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Springer, Kimberly, Living for the Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations, 1968–1980 (Durham, NC, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Williams, Rhonda Y., The Politics of Public Housing: Black Women's Struggles against Urban Inequality (New York, 2004)Google Scholar; Self, Robert O., American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ, 2005)Google Scholar; Countryman, Matthew, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 2005)Google Scholar; and Tyson, Radio Free Dixie.

57 Joseph, “The Black Power Movement,” 753, 766, 775.

58 Hall, “The Long Civil Rights Movement,” 1235, 1245; Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 15; Korstad, Robert Rodgers, Civil Rights Unionism: Tobacco Workers and the Struggle for Democracy in the Mid-Twentieth Century South (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The literature on the labor-civil rights nexus is deep and rich. Other recent works that adopt this chronology include Swindall, Lindsey R., The Path to the Greater, Freer, Truer World: Southern Civil Rights and Anticolonialism, 1937–1955 (Gainsville, FL, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gellman, Erik S., Death Blow to Jim Crow: The National Negro Congress and the Rise of Militant Civil Rights (Chapel Hill, NC, 2012)Google Scholar; Gore, Theoharis, and Woodard, eds., Want to Start a Revolution?; Theoharis, Jeanne and Woodard, Komozi, eds., Groundwork: Local Black Freedom Movements in America (New York, 2005)Google Scholar.

59 See Plummer, Brenda Gayle, In Search of Power: African Americans in the Era of Decolonization, 1956–1974 (Cambridge, UK, 2013)Google Scholar; Onishi, Yuichiro, Transpacific Antiracism: Afro-Asian Solidarity in 20th-Century Black America, Japan, and Okinawa (New York, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Slate, Nico, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge, MA, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Runstedtler, Theresa, Jack Johnson, Rebel Sojourner: Boxing in the Shadow of the Global Color Line (Berkeley, CA, 2012)Google Scholar; Gaines, Kevin K., American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Anderson, Carol, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge, UK, 2003)Google Scholar.

60 Pennybacker, Susan D., From Scottsboro to Munich: Race and Political Culture in 1930s Britain (Princeton, NJ, 2009)Google Scholar; Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919-1950 (New York, 2008)Google Scholar; Young, Cynthia A., Soul Power: Culture, Radicalism, and the Making of a U.S. Third World Left (Durham, NC, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Baldwin, Kate A., Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters between Black and Red, 1922–1963 (Durham, NC, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eschen, Penny M. Von, Race Against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, NY, 1997)Google Scholar.

61 James, Leslie, George Padmore and Decolonization from Below: Pan-Africanism, the Cold War, and the End of Empire (London, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ransby, Barbara, Eslanda: The Large and Unconventional Life of Mrs. Paul Robeson (New Haven, CT, 2013)Google Scholar; Adi, Hakim, Pan-Africanism and Communism: The Communist International, Africa, and the Diaspora, 1919–1939 (Trenton, NJ, 2013)Google Scholar; Gore, Dayo F., Radicalism at the Crossroads: African American Women Activists in the Cold War (New York, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McDuffie, Erik S., Sojourning for Freedom: Black Women, American Communism, and the Making of Black Left Feminism (Durham, NC, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Makalani, Minkah, In the Cause of Freedom: Radical Black Internationalism from Harlem to London, 1917–1939 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Davies, Carole Boyce, Left of Karl Marx: The Political Life of Black Communist Claudia Jones (Durham, NC, 2007)Google Scholar.

62 Plummer, Brenda Gayle, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63 Meriwether, James H., Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002), 22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Young, Soul Power, 2.

64 Cruse, Harold, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: A Historical Analysis of the Failure of Black Leadership (1967; New York, 2005), 564Google Scholar; Cruse, Harold, Rebellion or Revolution? (New York, 1968), 81Google Scholar.

65 Balakrishnan, “Afrocentrism Revisited.”

66 Du Bois, W. E. B., “Close Ranks,” The Crisis 16, no. 3 (July 1918): 111Google Scholar.

67 Harrison, Hubert H., “Declaration of Principles, Liberty League,” “The New Policies for the New Negro,” and “Our Professional Friends,” in A Hubert Harrison Reader, ed. Perry, Jeffrey B. (Middletown, CT, 2001), 90–2, 139–40, 144–7Google Scholar.

68 “Printed Address by Marcus Garvey on East St. Louis Riots,” July 8, 1917, in The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. I: 1826–August 1919, ed. Robert A. Hill (Berkeley, CA, 1983), 212–18.

69 Robinson, Black Marxism.

70 James, C. L. R., Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution (London, 1977), 66Google Scholar. This chronology is also suggested by West, Michael O., “Like a River: The Million Man March and the Black Nationalist Tradition in the United States,” Journal of Historical Sociology 12, no. 1 (Mar. 1999): 81–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

71 Michael O. West, “Garveyism Root and Branch: From the Age of Revolution to the Onset of Black Power,” in Global Garveyism, forthcoming.

72 There are now too many local studies to list. See, for example, McDuffie, Erik S., “Chicago, Garveyism, and the History of the Diasporic Midwest,” African and Black Diaspora: An International Journal 8, no. 2 (2015): 1–17Google Scholar; Sullivan, Frances Peace, “‘Forging Ahead’ in Banes, Cuba: Garveyism in a United Fruit Company Town,” New West Indian Guide 88, nos. 3/4 (2014): 231–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leeds, Asia, “Toward the ‘Higher Type of Womanhood’: The Gendered Contours of Garveyism and the Making of Redemptive Geographies in Costa Rica, 1922–1941,” Palimpsest: A Journal of Women, Gender, and the Black International 2, no. 1 (2013): 1–27Google Scholar; Guridy, Frank Andre, Forging Diaspora: Afro-Cubans and African Americans in a World of Empire and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill, NC, 2010), ch. 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roll, Jarod, “Garveyism and the Eschatology of African Redemption in the Rural South, 1920–1936,” Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 20, no. 1 (Winter 2010): 27–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; West, Michael O., “The Seeds Are Sown: The Impact of Garveyism in Zimbabwe in the Interwar Years,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 35, nos. 2/3 (2002): 335–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 Brown, Jacqueline Nassy, Dropping Anchor, Setting Sail: Geographies of Race in Black Liverpool (Princeton, NJ, 2005)Google Scholar; Fikes, Kesha, “Diasporic Governmentality: On the Gendered Limits of Migrant Wage-Labour in Portugal,” Feminist Review 90 (2008): 48–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Campt, Tina, “The Crowded Space of Diaspora: Intercultural Address and the Tensions of Diasporic Relation,” Radical History Review 83 (Spring 2002): 94–113CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 West, Michael O. and Martin, William G., “Contours of the Black International: From Toussaint to Tupac,” in From Toussaint to Tupac: The Black International since the Age of Revolution, eds. West, Michael O., Martin, William G., and Wilkins, Fanon Che (Chapel Hill, NC, 2009), 1–44, here 10–11Google Scholar.

75 Bair, Barbara, “True Women, Real Men: Gender, Ideology and Social Roles in the Garvey Movement,” in Gendered Domains: Rethinking Public and Private in Women's History, eds. Helly, Dorothy O. and Reverby, Susan M. (Ithaca, NY, 1992), 154–66, here 155Google Scholar. See also Mitchell, Righteous Propagation.

76 See, for example, Nicole Bourbonnais, “Our Joan of Arc: Women, Gender, and Authority in the Harmony Division of the UNIA,” in Global Garveyism, forthcoming; Blain, Keisha N., “‘We Want to Set the World on Fire’: Black Nationalist Women and Diasporic Politics in the New Negro World, 1940–1944,” Journal of Social History 49, no. 1 (Sept. 2015): 194–212CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Taylor, Ula Y., “‘Negro Women Are Great Thinkers as Well as Doers’: Amy Jacques-Garvey and Community Feminism in the United States, 1924–1927,” Journal of Women's History 12, no. 2 (Summer 2000): 104–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bair, Barbara, “‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands Unto God’: Laura Kofey and the Gendered Vision of Redemption in the Garvey Movement,” in A Mighty Baptism: Race, Gender, and the Creation of American Protestantism, eds. Juster, Susan and MacFarlane, Lisa (Ithaca, NY, 1996), 38–61Google Scholar.

77 Blain, Set the World on Fire; Farmer, Remaking Black Power; Bay, Mia, Griffin, Farah J., Jones, Martha S., and Savage, Barbara D., eds., Toward an Intellectual History of Black Women (Chapel Hill, NC, 2015)Google Scholar; Gore, Radicalism at the Crossroads; McDuffie, Sojourning for Freedom; Gore, Theoharis, and Woodard, eds., Want to Start a Revolution?

78 Stuckey, Sterling, “Contours of Black Studies: The Dimension of African and Afro-American Relationships,” Massachusetts Review 10, no. 4 (Autumn 1969): 747–56, here 752Google Scholar.

79 West, “Garveyism Root and Branch.”